Fetal Abortion Research Articles

Haplotypes associated with fetal death and abortion in Holstein cows with special reference to the situation in Japan

Haplotypes associated with fetal death and abortion in Holstein cows with special reference to the situation in Japan

Addiction Among Mothers Referring to Medico-Legal Centers in Fars for Legal Abortion due to Fetal Causes: A Seven- Year Review

Background: Substance abuse results in multiple complications for both the mother and the fetus during pregnancy. Objectives: The present study aimed at evaluating the frequency of mothers’ addiction in legal abortion with fetal causes in Fars forensic centers. Methods: This was a descriptive-analytical study with a sample size of 1664. The data including demographic characteristics, obstetric variables, and causes of fetal abortion were recorded. The data were analyzed by SPSS16, using analysis of the mean, median, and chi square test. Results: The rate of addiction was reported to be 40.7% in the study population. This study estimated the prevalence of cigarette smoking, drugs, alcohol and other chemical substances as 31.9%, 5.9%, and 2.9%, respectively. Mother addiction had a significant association with maternal age (P ≤ 0/001). Mothers of babies with genetic defects smoked cigarette (63.7%), used narcotics (64.8%), and alcohol and other drugs (63.9%). Conclusions: Cigarette was the most common addiction in mothers. Thus, promoting mothers’ awareness and knowledge should be an educational priority.

Intragenomic Conflict and Immune Tolerance: Do Selfish X-Linked Alleles Drive Skewed X Chromosome Inactivation?

In mammalian females, diploid somatic cells contain two X chromosomes, one of which is transcriptionally silenced, in a process termed X chromosome inactivation (XCI). Whereas XCI is largely random in placental females, many women exhibit skewed XCI (SXCI), in which the vast majority cells have the same X chromosome inactivated. SXCI has serious health consequences, associated with conditions ranging from Alzheimer’s to various autoimmune disorders. SXCI is also associated with outcomes of pregnancies, with higher rates of recurrent spontaneous abortion in women with SXCI. Here, I suggest that SXCI could be driven by selfish X-linked alleles. Consistent with the association of SXCI with autoimmunity, I first note the possibility that recurrent spontaneous abortion could reflect immune rejection of fetuses inheriting alleles from the largely silenced maternal X chromosome. Preferential abortion of fetuses carrying silenced X-linked alleles implies a transmission advantage for X-linked alleles on the largely expressed chromosome, which could drive the emergence of X-linked alleles that make the chromosome resistant to XCI. I discuss the evolutionary dynamics, fitness tradeoffs and implications of this hypothesis, and suggest future directions.

Fertility behaviors in South Korea and their association with ultrasound prenatal sex screening

Imbalances in the sex ratio at birth in Southeast and East Asia increased especially after the mid-1980s. We study how ultrasonic technology affected sex ratios at birth in South Korea, a country with a strong son preference. Between 1985 and 1995 fetal screenings and abortion services were widely available, though not available in the years before, and prohibited in the years after. Using the 1985, 1995, and 2005 Census microdata, we examine changes in sex ratios of newborns by birth year. We then study periodic effects on the fertility stopping rule, using the 2006 Korean Longitudinal Study of Aging, which provides birth years for all children. Between 1985 and 1995 there was a large increase in the fraction of boy babies at birth orders of three or more. Despite these fractions falling in the subsequent time period when fetal screening became illegal, they remained above plausible biological levels. Supporting earlier findings in the literature, the increase in sex ratios was especially large when prior sibling composition was entirely female. We also find that having only daughters significantly increases the probability of parents having another child, and this effect is greater for parents with any child born after 1985 than the parents with all children born before 1985. There exist significant period effects, suggesting that sex ratios at birth became imbalanced when ultrasound technology became available. The availability of ultrasound technology also influenced parents’ fertility decisions, seen especially in parents with only daughters deciding to have another child. Our study provides new evidence for how the availability of ultrasound technology influenced sex ratios at birth and influenced fertility behaviors in Korea.

Evaluation of mid-trimester abortion: A way forward

Background: Need of second trimester abortion has been increasing because of the wide scale introduction of prenatal screening programs detecting women whose pregnancies are complicated by serious fetal abnormalities. Lack of accredited centers and skills required for mid trimester abortion have made this procedure inaccessible to rural population of Nepal.Objectives: This study was conducted to assess correlation of uterine size measured by clinical examination and that assessed by ultrasound, foetal foot length measurement post abortion, dose of misoprostol required and induction delivery interval in medical induction and dilatation and evacuation cases.Methods: This is a hospital based cross-sectional study conducted from April 2011 to July 2012. gestational age was assessed by clinical palpation and ultrasound in women undergoing mid trimester abortion. Standard protocol was followed for medical and surgical abortion. Fetal foot length was measured post abortion. Mean dose of misoprostol and induction abortion interval were noted.Results: Mean age of the patients in dilatation and evacuation group and medical induction group were similar 28 (SD= 6.2) and 27 (SD=7) respectively. The mean dose of misoprostol requiredwas 400 micrograms for dilatation and evacuation and 600 micrograms for medical induction. There was moderate degree of relationship between foot length measurement of the fetus and USG findings, high degree of positive relationship between size of the uterus and fetal foot length measurement.Conclusion: Clinical estimation of period of gestation by size of the uterus correlated well with ultrasonography findings and fetal foot length measurement post abortion. The mid trimester service can thereforebe provided in the centers where sophisticated appliances like ultrasonography is not available.

Senate panel seeks middle ground on human fetal tissue research and abortion

Senate panel seeks middle ground on human fetal tissue research and abortion

Hypoluteoidism in a dog associated with recurrent mammary fibroadenoma stimulated by progestin therapy

BackgroundHypoluteoidism in the bitch is characterized by insufficient production and secretion of progesterone by the corpora lutea. It is a rare pathologic condition and during pregnancy, it leads to embryonic resorption or fetal abortion. Supplementary therapy with progestins is indicated during pregnancy to obtain delivery of vital puppies but unwarranted side effects of such treatment are poorly documented.Case presentationA 4-year-old, nulliparous, female Istrian Shorthaired Hound dog had been mated repeatedly in six heats with different dogs of proven fertility but signs of pregnancy did not develop. Estrous cycles, mating and pregnancies were monitored as hypoluteoidism or genital disease was suspected. During the first monitored estrus, the bitch was mated and on day 18 [day 0, day of estimated peak of luteinizing hormone (LH)], ultrasound examination showed three amniotic vesicles that were however found to be resorbed between day 20 and 23. Progesterone concentrations, measured by ELISA, were >8 ng/mL until day 12 and 1–2.5 ng/mL on days 20, 23 and 26. Primary hypoluteoidism was therefore suspected. In the second monitored estrus, the bitch was mated and during pregnancy, progesterone concentrations were >8 ng/mL until day 17 and 1–2.5 ng/mL on day 19. On days 20 and 22, two out of three embryonic vesicles had been resorbed. The bitch was treated with progesterone in oil from day 19 to day 58. Increase in the size of 2nd left thoracic mammary gland (T2-L) was observed and on day 46, ultrasound evaluation and biopsy were performed revealing a low-cellularity fibroadenoma. Parturition started spontaneously at day 65 but due to dystocia caused by fetal macrosomia, a Caesarean section was performed. During the next (third) monitored estrus, the bitch was bred again and during pregnancy, early decrease in progesterone concentration confirmed the diagnosis of primary hypoluteoidism. The bitch was treated with synthetic progestin (altrenogest) from day 8 to day 57. Five amniotic vesicles were detected by ultrasonography. Recurrence of swelling of T2-L was observed. On day 60, the bitch whelped five pups, two males and three females. As reported later by the owner, the latter did not show any sign of heat over the past 3 years. In one of them, clitoral hypertrophy and a blind ending vagina were diagnosed.ConclusionsThis is the first description of early hypoluteoidism in a pregnant bitch developing a mammary fibroadenoma under progestin treatment.

Factors associated with continuing emergence of β-thalassemia major despite prenatal testing: a cross-sectional survey.

PurposeHealth care initiatives focusing on prenatal testing and premarital genetic screening aiming to reduce the incidence of β-thalassemia have emerged during the last decade. In Palestine, 4% of the population are known thalassemia carriers with new cases continuing to appear despite the availability of prenatal testing. This study aims to identify factors that influence the decision to retain or abort fetuses affected by β-thalassemia in Palestine.MethodsConvenience sampling was used to select 32 women (72 fetuses) who were at risk of having a baby with β-thalassemia. A questionnaire on prenatal testing, test results, pregnancy outcomes, and factors influencing the decision to terminate the pregnancy were used for this cross-sectional study. The data were analyzed using SPSS version 17.ResultsAmong the fetuses screened, 36 (50%) were thalassemia carriers and 20 (28%) had β-thalassemia; 17 (85%) affected fetuses were aborted. Religious beliefs were the most cited reason for opposing abortion while prior experience with β-thalassemia patients and awareness programs promoted abortions. Mothers who opted to retain an affected fetus had modest educational attainment. Higher educational level was significantly associated with the decision to abort an affected fetus (p<0.05).ConclusionA religious consensus is needed on the abortion of fetuses affected by β-thalassemia. Improving female education and increasing awareness on thalassemia could help reduce the incidence of β-thalassemia in Palestine and around the world.

Fetal congenital abnormalities, types &amp; their relationshipwith age, prtity and recurrent abortions

Objective : To study fetal congenital abnormalities, types and theirrelationship with age , parity and number of abortions .Design : Prospective study .Setting :Alzahraa maternity teaching hospital in Al-Najaf city .Patient : 100mothers delivered normal babies &amp;100 mothersdelivered congenitally abnormal babies .Result : No significant relationship between fetal congenitalabnormalities with age and parity but there is a significant relationship between fetal congenital abnormalities and abortion especiallyrecurrent abortions. Conclusion : We find that there a significant relationship between fetal congenital abnormalities and abortion especially recurrent abortion and for that we adviseevery women with history of abortion for early prenatal screening and diagnostictests.

Taxanes in combination with platinum derivatives for the treatment of ovarian cancerduring pregnancy: A literature review .

Ovarian cancer is one of the most common types of solid carcinoma diagnosed during pregnancy. Taxane plus a platinum derivative is a combination therapy that is predominantly used in the treatment of ovarian cancer in non-pregnant women. Pregnancy adds various complexities to a course of treatment. In pregnant patients diagnosed with cancer during the first trimester, the risks of fetal malformations and fetal loss increase following the administration of cytotoxic drugs, and this is higher with multi-agent vs. single-agent chemotherapy (~25 vs. 10%). Exposure during the second and third trimester has little influence on teratogenic effects but increases the risk of intrauterine growth retardation, prematurity, low birth weight, and bone marrow toxicity. The present study aimed to review the maternal and fetal safety of treatment with taxane plus platinum derivatives for ovarian cancer during pregnancy. Relevant literature was retrieved from the Embase and PubMed databases using the search terms "ovarian cancer", "pregnancy", "taxane", "paclitaxel", "docetaxel", "platinum", "cisplatin", and "carboplatin". All available data up until September 2016 was synthesized, with no language restrictions. A total of 11 articles (including 13 pregnancies and 14 newborns) were retrieved that reported on the use of standard-dose taxane and platinum chemotherapy, including 9 cases treated with paclitaxel and carboplatin, 3 cases treated with paclitaxel and cisplatin, and 1 case treated with docetaxel and cisplatin. In 13 of the 14 (92.9%) births included, a healthy neonate was born, with follow-up ranging from 2to160 months. The average weight of the neonates at the time of delivery was 2,442.1g. In 7 of 9 the case reports that provided survival data, the mother was alive and disease-free at the end of follow-up (ranging from 2to40 months). In conclusion, combination therapy with taxanes and a platinum derivative may play a significant role in the management of pregnant patients with ovarian cancer during the second and third trimester. Exposure to this combination of agents during the second and third trimester does not appear to have a significant bearing on fetal mortality and abortion. .

Functional and phylogenetic evidence of a bacterial origin for the first enzyme in sphingolipid biosynthesis in a phylum of eukaryotic protozoan parasites

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate, intracellular eukaryotic apicomplexan protozoan parasite that can cause fetal damage and abortion in both animals and humans. Sphingolipids are essential and ubiquitous components of eukaryotic membranes that are both synthesized and scavenged by the Apicomplexa. Here we report the identification, isolation, and analyses of the Toxoplasma serine palmitoyltransferase, an enzyme catalyzing the first and rate-limiting step in sphingolipid biosynthesis: the condensation of serine and palmitoyl-CoA. In all eukaryotes analyzed to date, serine palmitoyltransferase is a highly conserved heterodimeric enzyme complex. However, biochemical and structural analyses demonstrated the apicomplexan orthologue to be a functional, homodimeric serine palmitoyltransferase localized to the endoplasmic reticulum. Furthermore, phylogenetic studies indicated that it was evolutionarily related to the prokaryotic serine palmitoyltransferase, identified in the Sphingomonadaceae as a soluble homodimeric enzyme. Therefore this enzyme, conserved throughout the Apicomplexa, is likely to have been obtained via lateral gene transfer from a prokaryote.

Fertility and Pregnancy Rate: A Comparative Study between Urban and Rural Tribal Areas

Demographic transition as well as urbanisation is a great factor of the socio-economic behaviour of tribal communities but it is also affecting their health status because simple tribal people have ability to adopt themselves in their habitation throughout their life span whereas impact of alien environment and uprooting from their habitat and settlement in another place generating fertility and pregnancy associated problems amongst them. Fertility rate is usually defined by the total live birth within the fertile age group but pregnancy rate measures the actual parameters of having child (Child Birth) which is based on total live birth, total abortion and loss of foetus. Hence it is hypothesised that the pregnancy rate is absolutely related to the wealth and education level of the tribal population in both rural and urban areas. With above background and hypothesis, the main objective of the study is to find out the fertility and pregnancy rate by residence and find out its associate factors which are responsible for high and low pregnancy rate. Secondary literature review and primary data collection are the basic tools of this research paper whereas District Level Health Survey Report 3, Sample Registration Report (2009), Annual Health Survey Report (2011) and different published articles, news, Internet and books have been followed as review and primary data are gathered from field work by pre tested structured schedule with the help of interview and Focus Group Discussions. The Specific formulas are used to find out the rate of pregnancy and its associated measures which are correlated with economy and education of the target group. After analysis results /findings are justified with secondary literature. For the study purpose tribal dominating village Nerli and urban area Bacheli of district south Bastar Dantewada, Chhattisgarh had been selected. The total live birth is 28 point less than the TLB of rural areas whereas abortion rate is 52.06 point high in urban area along with the loss of foetus is also 10 point high in that area in same income group. Hence, the high abortion rate and loss of foetus had been seen in low wealth quintile in urban population while abortion rate and loss of foetus were high in the middle wealth quintile category in rural areas. It is positive result of our research that the abortion rate and loss of foetus both are comparatively low in high wealth quintile group in both rural and urban areas as compare to low and middle economy group. In account of literacy the abortion rate and loss of foetus were lower amongst literate people of urban (141.76) and rural areas (98.55) as compared to illiterate people of both residential areas (urban: 180.46 and rural: 73.16) but it has been significant of the study is both abortion with 43.21 point and loss of foetus with 1 point high in rate in urban population rather than rural population. The findings of our study are the evident about the tribal population who had been resided in urban areas had lower pregnancy rate (242.67) and also low fertility rate (2.3) with higher abortion (322.22) and higher rate of the loss of foetus (6.1) which plays an essential role of declining in their population in Chhattisgarh. In order to solve the fertility and pregnancy related problems there is a need of assessment by anthropologists and medical practitioners together to find out the pregnancy and fertility related socio-physical factors for their betterment.

Abortion of Fetus with Down's Syndrome: India Joins the Worldwide Controversy Surrounding Abortion Laws.

Abortion continues to be a moral and ethical dilemma in medicine. While abortions in general have always faced social stigmas, the abortion of fetuses with Down's syndrome in particular remains the subject of debate across the globe. In India, under the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, abortion is legal under prescribed circumstances only till 20weeks of gestation. Laws for abortion after 20week of gestation are ill defined. In a recent ruling of the Supreme Court in India, a woman was denied the right to abortion of her 26week old fetus. With this ruling, India has joined the rest of the world in the debate surrounding abortion laws and the ethics of abortion.

Maternal and Fetal Outcomes of Anticoagulation in Pregnant Women With Mechanical Heart Valves

BackgroundAnticoagulation for mechanical heart valves during pregnancy is essential to prevent thromboembolic events. Each regimen has drawbacks with regard to maternal or fetal risk. ObjectivesThis meta-analysis sought to estimate and compare the risk of adverse maternal and fetal outcomes in pregnant women with mechanical heart valves who received different methods of anticoagulation. MethodsStudies were identified using a Medline search including all publications up to June 5, 2016. Study inclusion required reporting of maternal death, thromboembolism, and valve failure, and/or fetal spontaneous abortion, death, and congenital defects in pregnant women treated with any of the following: 1) a vitamin K antagonist (VKA) throughout pregnancy; 2) low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) throughout pregnancy; 3) LMWH for the first trimester, followed by a VKA (LMWH and VKA); or 4) unfractionated heparin for the first trimester, followed by a VKA (UFH and VKA). ResultsA total of 800 pregnancies from 18 publications were included. Composite maternal risk was lowest with VKA (5%), compared with LMWH (16%; ratio of averaged risk [RAR]: 3.2; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.5 to 7.5), LMWH and VKA (16%; RAR: 3.1; 95% CI: 1.2 to 7.5), or UFH and VKA (16%; RAR: 3.1; 95% CI: 1.5 to 7.1). Composite fetal risk was lowest with LMWH (13%; RAR: 0.3; 95% CI: 0.1 to 0.8), compared with VKA (39%), LMWH and VKA (23%), or UFH and VKA (34%). No significant difference in fetal risk was observed between women taking ≤5 mg daily warfarin and those with an LMWH regimen (RAR: 0.9; 95% CI: 0.3 to 2.4). ConclusionsVKA treatment was associated with the lowest risk of adverse maternal outcomes, whereas the use of LMWH throughout pregnancy was associated with the lowest risk of adverse fetal outcomes. Fetal risk was similar between women taking ≤5 mg warfarin daily and women treated with LMWH.

Neospora caninum abortion in a Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus)

A captive 17-year old female Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) aborted a fetus with a crown rump length of 19cm in early pregnancy. The fetus showed an early state of mummification. Histologically, a multifocal mononuclear encephalitis, myocarditis and periportal hepatitis was present indicating a possible protozoal cause of abortion. Although immunohistologically, Neospora (N.) caninum antigen could not be demonstrated, N. caninum DNA was detected by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) in brain, heart, liver and lung of the fetus. N. caninum DNA was extracted from the aborted fetus and the microsatellite marker MS10 was amplified by PCR and sequenced. The obtained MS10 microsatellite pattern has not been described in Germany yet. Nevertheless, the MS10 pattern was very similar to those reported for N. caninum isolated from dogs and cattle in Germany. Because of the histological pattern and extent of the lesions, neosporosis was suspected as the cause of fetal death and abortion. This case report describes for the first time transplacental transmission of N. caninum and abortion due to neosporosis in a tapir.

Changes in expression of the CD200 tolerance‐signaling molecule and its receptor (CD200R) by villus trophoblasts during first trimester missed abortion and in chronic histiocytic intervillositis

Expression of CD200 at the feto-maternal interface is associated with successful murine and human pregnancy. CD200 binding to CD200 receptors on lymphomyeloid cells suppresses inflammation and induces Tregs. CD200 receptors are also expressed on mouse and human placental trophoblast cells. What is the expression of CD200 and CD200R in human missed abortions which have preserved Treg levels and in chronic histiocytic intervillositis (CHI) where maternal inflammatory cells cause IUGR? Immunohistiochemistry for CD200, CD200R, and Ki67 using human placental sections from missed abortions, term placenta, and CHI. PCR testing was done for trisomy in missed abortion. CD200 and CD200R were expressed by human villus trophoblasts from 2weeks post-implantation to term. Cytotrophoblast proliferation (Ki-67+ count) decreased at term. In first trimester missed abortion cases, CD200>CD200R villus trophoblasts accompanied missed abortion of non-trisomic male fetuses. CD200 and Ki67+ trophoblast proliferation was preserved in CHI with maternal inflammatory cell infiltration but CD200R was greatly decreased. Residual CD200 activity may prevent completion of abortions via induction of Treg cells. In CHI, infiltrating maternal effector T cells may block Treg induction. An autocrine role for CD200-CD200R interaction versus inhibition of soluble CD200 by soluble CD200R is discussed.

Clashes of consensus: on the problem of both justifying abortion of fetuses with Down syndrome and rejecting infanticide

Although the abortion of fetuses with Down syndrome has become commonplace, infanticide is still widely rejected. Generally, there are three ways of justifying the differentiation between abortion and infanticide: by referring to the differences between the moral status of the fetus versus the infant, by referring to the differences of the moral status of the act of abortion versus the act of infanticide, or by separating the way the permissibility of abortion is justified from the way the impermissibility of infanticide is justified. My argument is that none of these ways justifies the abortion of fetuses diagnosed with Down syndrome while simultaneously rejecting infanticide. Either the justification for abortion is consistent with infanticide, or it is implausible to justify abortion while rejecting infanticide. I conclude the article by making some preliminary remarks about how one might manage the situation posed by my argument.

Epidemiological Study of Legal Abortion due to Fetal Defects in the Files Referred to Fars Province Forensic Medicine Centers from 2007 to 2013

Background: Sometimes the fetus suffers some abnormalities that damage its physical and mental growth. There have already been some indications for legal abortion and in fact, since 2005, some other conditions have been added in the Islamic republic of Iran under certain conditions. Objectives: This study was aimed to study the fetal causes of legal abortion referred to the Fars province forensic medical centers from 2007 to 2013. Methods: This is a descriptive-analytic retrospective study. The subjects included are the cases referred to the forensic medicine centers in Shiraz, Iran, during the years of 2007 and 2013. There were 1,664 samples in total and the sampling was done upon census. The variables of demography, midwifery, mother’s disease, fetal disease and reasons for abortion were considered in the checklist of the questionnaires. The gathered data was analyzed by SPSS, version 16. Results: The highest frequency of abortion was observed and 31.5% related to mothers between the ages of 25-30. In 79.6% of the cases, abortion certificates were issued for fetal causes, 35.25% for thalassemia major and 23.4% for neural system congenital disorders. Consanguineous marriage accounted for 60.8% of abortion cases and 83.42% had an abortion before the fourth month of their pregnancy. Furthermore, in about16.58% of the cases, an abortion certificate was issued for mother’s distress and constrictions. Approximately 36.75% of the couples had a family history of thalassemia and 17.65% of them already had a child with congenital abnormality. Conclusions: The most frequent causes of fetal abortion licenses were due to the thalassemia and congenital malformations of the nervous system.

Transplacental Viral Infection: Mechanisms and Manifestations

&lt;p&gt; In 21&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; century, infectious disease control is much faster than never before. In combination of robotic instruments and high-tech analytic tools, we are able to put pieces of knowledge of how immune networks interact to fight against infectious agents, and to develop vaccines and better treatments. Treatments for pregnant women for highly contagious diseases have been a major challenge for current medicine because the complications of the interactions between fetal and maternal immune systems during pregnancy, including suppression of maternal immune system to avoid rejection of fetus and to protect fetus from pathogens or any harmful agents during gestation. This article focuses on what defense systems are built in nature to prevent viral transplacental infection, and to ensure a safe pregnancy for the mother and healthy development of the fetus. In addition to innate and acquired immunity to decease pathogens, placental barrier and placental immunity further provide restriction of viral entry and viral replication in placenta. Viral pathogens are able to utilize various means to infect placental trophoblasts and to transplacentally infect the fetus. The teratogenic effects of several viruses and potential clinical manifestations of congenital infections are also discussed. Because of the efficiency of placental barrier and the placental immunity, to restrict most of viral infection, only very few viruses can transplacentally infect fetus in pregnant women. The consequences of the transplacental infection also vary at different stages of gestation. Transplacental infections happened in early gestation can lead to more adverse outcomes, including stillbirth, abortion, and congenital malformations of fetus, such as ZIKV transplacental infection associated with developing microcephaly and neurological disorders of affected fetus. Therefore, prevention of viral infection in pregnant women, and understanding mechanisms of transplacental infections may help to develop better therapeutic strategy for congenital infectious diseases.&lt;/p&gt;

Evaluation of serum concentrations of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-2, IL-10, and nitric oxide (NO) during the estrous cycle, early pregnancy and abortion in goats

The aim of this study was to establish the serum concentrations, ranges, and trends of Th1 type cytokine (tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-2), Th2 type cytokine (IL-10), and nitric oxide (NO) during the estrous cycle, early pregnancy and abortion in goats. Boer goats (n=25) having symptoms of normal estrous cycles were selected, 20 were mated and 15 conceived a pregnancy, and the remaining five were not mated and served as estrous controls. On the Day 60 of pregnancy, all 15 pregnant goats were induced to abort the pregnancy by intramuscular injection of prostaglandin (PG). Serum samples were collected on Days 1, 7, 14, and 19 of the estrous cycle, at Days 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 of pregnancy, and at Days 1, 3, 8, 10 over the period when abortion were occurring. Results of the present study indicated that during the estrous cycle the balance between Th1 and Th2 cytokines slightly shifted toward Th1 cytokine production (TNF-α and IL-2). The NO may have a direct positive role in inducing a Th1 response. During early pregnancy, TNF-α and IL-2 serum concentrations markedly increased from Days 0 to 10, and gradually decreased from Days 10 to 60, while IL-10 and NO serum concentrations remained elevated from Days 0 to 60. The increased concentrations of IL-10 and decreased concentrations of TNF-α and IL-2 are characteristic of a Th2-enhanced response, which may be related to increased concentrations of NO. These changes may be essential to maintain a normal pregnancy. In addition, the serum concentrations of TNF-α, IL-2 and NO at Days 1, 3, 8 and 10 of the period of induced abortion were markedly greater than that on Day 60 of pregnancy. Conversely, IL-10 concentrations at these four time points of abortion were markedly less than that on Day 60 of pregnancy. After abortion, the Th2 response shifted to a Th1-enhanced response. Thus, NO concentrations increase and the Th1-enhanced response may function synergistically to be involved in physiologic responses that lead to abortion of the pregnancy. It is concluded that the serum concentrations of the Th1/Th2 cytokine and NO changed temporally as the estrous cycle, pregnancy and abortion progressed advanced. A Th2-enhanced state promoted normal pregnancy, while increased concentrations of Th1 were observed during the period of fetal abortion. The concentrations of NO varied in regulation of the Th1/Th2 cytokine concentration balance during the three phases (estrous cycle, pregnancy, and fetal abortion) of goats.