Vertical Caves Research Articles

KAJIAN GEOMORFOLOGI KOMPLEKS GUA SEPLAWAN KAWASAN KARST JONGGRANGAN

This research aims to study the geomorphology of Seplawan cave in Karst region Jonggrangan. This includes : (1) the type of cave and landform around the cave, (2) the type of cave tunnel, and (3) the existence of speleothem and speleogen in the cave. The geomorphologic study of caves provides useful information to demonstrate a track record of karst development as well as to guide the development of cave tourism. The method employed in this research is a geomorphologic survey by focusing on morphology and morfogenesa. The data was collected through observation, documentation, and literary study. The data analysis was performed using descriptive-morphologic and spatial analysis. The findings show that seplawan cave belongs to the category of pit cave, formed by the widening of the ponor hole in the doline base. The tunnel in the cave have different forms namely, passage eliptical, rectangular passage, canyon, and joint passage. Speleothem in the form of stalactites, stalagmites, and drappery is found near the mouth of the cave. Moreover, the speleogen in the form of a notch solution, solution pocket, pothole, scallops, and Karren anastomoses is found in all parts of the cave.Keywords: karst geomorphology, karst caves, speleothem, speleogen

“A Janela” e l'ambiguità del reale: invenzione e memoria nel racconto della scrittrice brasiliana Lygia Fagundes Telles

This essay aims at analysing the role of the window in “A Janela”, a short story written by Lygia Fagundes Telles published for the first time in the collection O Jardim Selvagem (1965) and then republished in Antes do Baile Verde (1977). In this short story an old man returns to a room only to see the window that reminds him of his son who is dead. His reminiscences, revealed through a dialogue with the woman who lives in the room, modify the narrative structure: the transition from the present to the past discloses an introspection that makes the narration ambiguous and leads the woman – and also the reader – to suspect that the man is insane. In this way the text results in a Chinese box structure: “A Janela” contains its miniature, that is, the window which, by causing reminiscences of the man, turns out to be a sort of emblem of that “creative process” that, through the intersection of memory and fiction, defines Lygia Fagundes Telles' literary works. Starting from the analysis of metaphorical and symbolical meanings ascribed to the window as “subject-object” of the narration, this essay will also place emphasis on the combination of memory and fiction as one of the main stylistic mark of the writer's works in order to interpret “A Janela” as a sort of mise en abime of the whole literary production of Lygia Fagundes Telles'.

Allostratigraphy of Punung Paleoreef based on Lithofacies Distributions, Jlubang Area, Pacitan Region-East Java

DOI: 10.17014/ijog.v7i2.140 Lithologically, Punung Formation as a paleoreef comprises coral boundstone rhodolith, algal grainstone, algal packstone, algal wackestone, algal floatstone, and algal rudstone. It is dominated by red algae and had formed a fringing reef in a warmly shallow marine environment. They built seven phases of paleoreef complex. Each paleoreef complex has been bounded by a local unconformity that is characterized by caliche. The Jaten Formation has becomes the base of the Punung paleoreef which build up by an angular unconformity contact on uppermost part. It consists of tuffaceous wacky sandstone with silicate cement. The formation as the reef base indicates two factors. The external factor because of the decrease of a volcanic activity and the internal one was caused by the depositional environment of the Jaten Formation becoming shallower. The subsurface runoff systems in many caves (like: Jaran cave and others) have the same southward direction to the dipping direction of algal grainstone lithofacies of Punung Formation. The vertical caves are formed by a jointing system.

Exploration for a cave by magnetic and electrical resistivity surveys: Ayvacık Sinkhole example, Bozdağ, İzmir (western Turkey)

Geophysical survey techniques have been successfully applied to near-surface cave detection in karstic terrains. We used magnetic and electrical resistivity surveys to delineate the karstic structure of the Ayvacık Sinkhole, which may be considered to be a vertical cave. The magnetic-total-field-anomaly map helped reveal the metamorphic and sedimentary units in the study area. The total-horizontal-gradient map, which was based on a calculated pseudogravity anomaly, successfully identified the contact between the limestone unit and the cave system. Using these results, we positioned and carried out a vertical electrical sounding (VES) survey with a Schlumberger array along a line that consisted of 11 stations. The VES data were then processed using a 1D global optimization technique, which used a genetic algorithm and a 2D linearized least-squares algorithm. The results were generally in good agreement with each other, and together they pointed out three geologic layers: (1) an overburden layer ([Formula: see text]), (2) an approximately 25-m-thick alluvial fill (100–316 Ωm), and (3) a limestone unit (316–3162 Ωm); and also suggested the existence of a high-resistive anomaly ([Formula: see text]), possibly a karstic cave, located at the depth of approximately 40 m. Also, the results suggested that the buried limestone unit had an undulating karstic topography including a probable pinnacle structure. A synthetic modeling study was carried out, and it validated the reliability of the results. Finally, our findings indicated that the geophysical survey techniques used here were successful in detecting a cave located deep enough to make human exploration difficult.

Geological methods applied to speleogenetical research in vertical caves: the example of Torca Teyera shaft (Picos de Europa, northern Spain)

Research in large vertical caves (shafts) is rare and usually restricted to speleological explorations because of difficult access. The systemic methodology of work in shafts has not been established. Picos de Europa massif, in the Cantabrian Mountains of Spain, has a spectacular development of shafts deeper than 500 m. One of them is Torca Teyera cave, which is 738 m deep and 4 km long. The present study established a methodology to characterize the geological and geomorphological aspects of this special group of caves and to identify the factors contributing to karst development. The research is multidisciplinary, needs data from the cave and the caves’ surroundings and involves (1) the speleological cave survey at a 1:500 scale: the construction of a 3D model and morphometric analyses; (2) the geomorphological mapping on the cave survey at 1:500; (3) the geological and fracture mapping of the cave environment and cross section at 1:5.000; and (4) the comparison in stereographic projection of the obtained survey data and joint measures.

A new species of Strouhaloniscellus Tabacaru, 1993 (Crustacea: Isopoda: Oniscidea) from a cave in Mt Biokovo, Croatia

A new species of Strouhaloniscellus (S. biokovoensis) (Trichoniscidae, Haplophthalminae) is described and illustrated from specimens collected at the bottom of a vertical cave in Mt Biokovo, Croatia. The new species is characterised by its small size (2.8 mm long), unpigmented body, absence of eyes, cephalon with three rows of tubercles, pereion with an oblique ridge on the epimera and 2+2 large tubercles on pereionites 1–6 and 1+1 on pereionite 7, pleon narrow with no dorsal ornamentation, male pereiopod 7 with a stout apically rounded seta on carpus, and male pleopod 1 exopod with a quadrangular distal part bent outwards and a rounded lobe on medial margin. Strouhaloniscellus biokovoensis n. sp. represents the second known species of the genus Strouhaloniscellus. The differences with S. anophthalmus (Strouhal) are discussed and an emended diagnosis of the genus Strouhaloniscellus is given.

Taphonomy of a South African cave: geological and hydrological influences on the GD 1 fossil assemblage at Gondolin, a Plio-Pleistocene paleocave system in the Northwest Province, South Africa

Occasional excavation of in situ and ex situ deposits at the formerly mined Gondolin paleocave system has yielded large and diverse samples of Plio-Pleistocene faunas, including isolated hominin and non-hominin primate remains. In 2003, new excavations into naturally decalcified, in situ sediments near the GD 1 datum point near the northwest corner of the cave system were undertaken. This paper describes the recovered faunal remains, taphonomy of the assemblage, and the geological and paleomagnetic context of the GD 1 deposits. The deposits represent a series of inter-stratified speleothem, in-washed sediments and talus deposits we suggest date to a time period prior to, and just after, the Olduvai normal-polarity event at around 1.7–1.8 Ma. Surface sediments and clasts were introduced into the cave by rain water runoff entering a vertically-oriented entrance that had formed along a rift in the area of GD 1. The faunal assemblage consists primarily of fragmentary diaphyseal fragments and isolated teeth. Taxonomically, the small collection of specifically identifiable bovid and equid fossils is generally consistent with remains previously excavated from in situ deposits in the Gondolin paleocave system (GD 2) and dated to around 1.8 Ma; however, the depositional histories of these two assemblages from Gondolin are remarkably different. The preservation and relative proportions of recovered skeletal elements at GD 1 is consistent with these materials having been initially accumulated outside the karstic system near the vertical cave entrance, and then later hydrologically sorted and deposited inside the cave. The sporadic to continuous water flow into the northwest corner of the cave system during the Pleistocene gradually decalcified the excavated fossilbearing breccias and further modified the composition and spatial distribution of the fossil assemblage by introducing potentially younger deposits and skeletal materials. This study highlights the variation in taphonomic processes that can occur within a single cave system, and the complex pre- and postdepositional geological and hydrological processes that can influence the taphonomic history of South African Plio-Pleistocene karstic fossil assemblages.

Prey deposits and den sites of the Upper Pleistocene hyena Crocuta crocuta spelaea (Goldfuss, 1823) in horizontal and vertical caves of the Bohemian Karst (Czech Republic)

Prey deposits and den sites of the Upper Pleistocene hyena Crocuta crocuta spelaea (Goldfuss, 1823) in horizontal and vertical caves of the Bohemian Karst (Czech Republic)

Karst subzone division in vertical cycle zone and its significance

Vertical cycle karst zone has been studied for more than 100 years, however karst subzones in the zone have never been divided and affected depth of CO2 from rainwater in the zone has never been studied. On the basis of field observation, survey and chemical analysis, the difference of karst processes indicated by CaCO3 and pH values in fine and loose sedimentary strata as well as limestone strata, and the vertical cycle zone ascertained by predecessors can be divided into three subzones, that is, the upper first subzone, characterized by unsaturated water solution and strong dissolution processes, the middle second subzone, characterized by supersaturated water solution and precipitation, and the lower third subzone, characterized by unstable water solution and weak dissolution or weak precipitation. The three subzones can indicate the vertical CO2 cycle. In fine and loose sediment strata, the bottom of the first subzone is the lower boundary strongly influenced by CO2 from rainwater, soil and air; all CO2 from rainwater, soil and air is almost exhausted in the second subzone. In the early developmental period of karst process in limestone strata, karst funnels and vertical caves do not form, vertical seeping of rainwater and soil water is very slow, and CO2 from soil, rainwater and air almost can reach the third subzone, but in the middle and late developmental periods, karst funnels and vertical caves occur, CO2 from soil, rainwater and air can reach deep seasonal change zone and horizontal cycle zone and quicken development of karst morphology. Deep karst morphology near groundwater level under vertical cycle zone develops better in the middle and late periods of karst process.

Comparative studies of Danxia landforms in China

Danxia geomorphology originates from China. This paper studies the spatial distribution and differences in characteristics of Danxia landforms. Based on relevant research and investigations, three congregated areas of Danxia landform in China are discussed in this paper. They are the southeast area (including Jiangxi, Fujian, Zhejiang, Hunan and Guangxi provinces), the southwest area (the transitional zone of Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau and Sichuan Basin) and the northwest area (including Longshan mountain and along the banks of the Huanghe River and its anabranches). Not only the conditions of geology and geography of the three areas but also the differences of Danxia landforms of the three areas are analyzed. The Danxia landscape, characterized by upright-shaped peaks, Danxia mesa, stone wall, cave and vertical cave, “Danxia natural bridge”, “a narrow strip of sky” and so on, often presents in the southeast area. The landscape of southwest area is characterized by Danxia escarpment faces and waterfalls. In the northwest area, the Danxia landscape has the traits of arid areas simultaneously, for example, mud-coating type, columniation type, board type, moreover, it is greatly different between these environmental factors such as the microclimate, water, wind, and the loess cover. Finally it explores the causes which lead differences in landform and also explains the landform formation process and its mechanism with reference to the rates of crustal uplift, the tectonic red-basin, and the external processes including working of running water, weathering, biogenic, gravity in each area of Danxia Landforms in China.

Black Holes of the Bahamas: what they are and why they are black

Black holes are vertical cave systems, which have no known lateral passages and form in the interior stable regions of the larger Bahamian islands. They are found where the land is transitional between submerged and dry land, not dissimilar to saltmarsh environments. Most Black Holes are located in the central to western side of the island of South Andros in the Bahamas, although one has been found on the northern transitional shore of Grand Bahama Island. The water in these holes appears black in colour due to the presence of a 1 m thick microbial layer located within the upper third of the water column (18–19 m) at the boundary between the oxic low salinity upper water mass and the denser anoxic saline water layer. The boundary between the two water masses is characterised by sharp discontinuities in physico-chemical gradients: salinity increased from 12 to 35 psu; temperature from 29°C to 36°C; pH decreased from pH 8.6 to 6.45 and dissolved O 2 from 6 mg/l to <1 mg/l. Anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria belonging to the genera Allochromatium and Thiocapsa have been identified as the dominant members of this warm (36°C), saline, sulphide rich layer and achieve population densities >10 7 viable cells/ml. Calculations reveal that this layer of anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria, in the South Andros Black Hole may have a biomass content of approximately 5.06 ton dry weight.

Black Holes of the Bahamas: what they are and why they are black

Black holes are vertical cave systems, which have no known lateral passages and form in the interior stable regions of the larger Bahamian islands. They are found where the land is transitional between submerged and dry land, not dissimilar to saltmarsh environments. Most Black Holes are located in the central to western side of the island of South Andros in the Bahamas, although one has been found on the northern transitional shore of Grand Bahama Island. The water in these holes appears black in colour due to the presence of a 1 m thick microbial layer located within the upper third of the water column (18–19 m) at the boundary between the oxic low salinity upper water mass and the denser anoxic saline water layer. The boundary between the two water masses is characterised by sharp discontinuities in physico-chemical gradients: salinity increased from 12 to 35 psu; temperature from 29°C to 36°C; pH decreased from pH 8.6 to 6.45 and dissolved O 2 from 6 mg/l to <1 mg/l. Anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria belonging to the genera Allochromatium and Thiocapsa have been identified as the dominant members of this warm (36°C), saline, sulphide rich layer and achieve population densities >10 7 viable cells/ml. Calculations reveal that this layer of anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria, in the South Andros Black Hole may have a biomass content of approximately 5.06 ton dry weight.

Eogenetic karst from the perspective of an equivalent porous medium

The porosity of young limestones experiencing meteoric diagenesis in the vicinity of their deposition (eogenetic karst) is mainly a double porosity consisting of touching-vug channels and preferred passageways lacing through a matrix of interparticle porosity. In contrast, the porosity of limestones experiencing subaerial erosion following burial diagenesis and uplift (telogenetic karst) is mainly a double porosity consisting of conduits within a network of fractures. The stark contrast between these two kinds of karst is illustrated by their position on a graph showing the hydraulic characteristics of an equivalent porous medium consisting of straight, cylindrical tubes (n-D space, where n is porosity,D is the diameter of the tubes, and logn is plotted against logD). Studies of the hydrology of small carbonate islands show that large-scale, horizontal hydraulic conductivity (K) increases by orders of magnitude during the evolution of eogenetic karst. Earlier petrologic studies have shown there is little if any change in the total porosity of the limestone during eogenetic diagenesis. The limestone of eogenetic karst, therefore, tracks horizontally inn-D space. In contrast, the path from initial sedimentary material to telogenetic karst comprises a descent on the graph with reduction ofn during burial diagenesis, then a sideways shift with increasingD due to opening of fractures during uplift and exposure, and finally an increase inD andn during development of the conduits along the fractures. Eogenetic caves are mainly limited to boundaries between geologic units and hydrologic zones: stream caves at the contact between carbonates and underlying impermeable rocks (and collapse-origin caves derived therefrom); vertical caves along platform-margin fractures; epikarst; phreatic pockets (banana holes) along the water table; and flank margin caves that form as mixing chambers at the coastal freshwater-saltwater “interface”. In contrast, the caverns of telogenetic karst are part of a system of interconnected conduits that drain an entire region. The eogenetic caves of small carbonate islands are, for the most part, not significantly involved in the drainage of the island.

Isolation and genetic diversity of Gambusia hubbsi (mosquitofish) populations in blueholes on Andros Island, Bahamas

Among the many freshwater habitats occupied by the mosquitofish (Gambusia hubbsi) on Andros Island, Bahamas, are blueholes: vertical caves that filled with water as sea levels rose during the past 15 000 years. At the present time, many of the blueholes on Andros Island appear to be highly isolated habitats analogous to islands. However, geographical distance among blueholes and the geological history of bluehole formation may also affect the genetic structure of G. hubbsi populations in blueholes. Thirty-two isozyme loci in 14 G. hubbsi populations inhabiting blueholes and three inhabiting surface-water habitats were assayed to gain insight into the effects of geological history and geographical distribution on population structure. Genetic structure among populations is high and significant (FST=0.38−0.4) and Nei's genetic distance (D) is low among all populations. Although G. hubbsi populations are closely related, bluehole geology imposes significant barriers to gene flow. A pattern of isolation-by-distance was not evident in the genetic data. Furthermore, none of the bluehole populations appears to be a source from which other bluehole populations were founded. Rather, they appear to be ‘sinks’ into which migration may occur rarely. Genetic drift appears to have had a profound effect on allozyme allele frequencies in the G. hubbsi populations that were sampled. Local population structure measured by allozymes appears to be more heavily influenced by historical population dynamics and stochastic migration than by geographical locality or age of the blueholes.

Isolation and genetic diversity of Gambusia hubbsi (mosquitofish) populations in blueholes on Andros Island, Bahamas

Among the many freshwater habitats occupied by the mosquitofish (Gambusia hubbsi) on Andros Island, Bahamas, are blueholes: vertical caves that filled with water as sea levels rose during the past 15 000 years. At the present time, many of the blueholes on Andros Island appear to be highly isolated habitats analogous to islands. However, geographical distance among blueholes and the geological history of bluehole formation may also affect the genetic structure of G. hubbsi populations in blueholes. Thirty-two isozyme loci in 14 G. hubbsi populations inhabiting blueholes and three inhabiting surface-water habitats were assayed to gain insight into the effects of geological history and geographical distribution on population structure. Genetic structure among populations is high and significant (FST=0.38−0.4) and Nei's genetic distance (D) is low among all populations. Although G. hubbsi populations are closely related, bluehole geology imposes significant barriers to gene flow. A pattern of isolation-by-distance was not evident in the genetic data. Furthermore, none of the bluehole populations appears to be a source from which other bluehole populations were founded. Rather, they appear to be ‘sinks’ into which migration may occur rarely. Genetic drift appears to have had a profound effect on allozyme allele frequencies in the G. hubbsi populations that were sampled. Local population structure measured by allozymes appears to be more heavily influenced by historical population dynamics and stochastic migration than by geographical locality or age of the blueholes.

Radon transport in fractured porous media — Experimental study in caves

The spatial and temporal variation of 222Rn concentration in three horizontal caves and in one vertical cave was measured to study the influence of different morphological and meteorological parameters on the forming of airborne radon concentrations inside. In horizontal caves, the daily mean radon concentration as a function of the daily average surface temperature showed a step-function type dependence with low winter and high summer values reflecting the main direction of underground airflows. Restriction of airflows increased winter but decreased summer radon levels. The transition pattern between the low winter and high summer values gradually linearized as the number of vertical fractures communicating with the surface increased. Contrary to horizontal caves, in the vertical cave barometric pressure variations played the most important role in controlling subsurface radon concentrations. Decreasing pressure increased radon levels, and increased pressure decreased radon levels. In the pressure-radon correlation curve, there was a small hysteresis which indicated the nonlinearity of the process.

Microstructure Observation of “Crystal-Originated Particles” on Silicon Wafers

Microstructure shape of “crystal-originated particles” (COP's) on mirror-polished silicon wafers (a) as received, (b) cleaned with NH4OH/H2O2/H2O solution (SC-1), and (c) annealed at high temperature (∼1150° C) in O2/N2 mixture or in H2, were observed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM) and atomic force microscope (AFM). Elemental analysis of the COP's was also made using TEM-energy dispersion X-ray spectroscope (EDX). The COP was a pyramidal pit with {111} sidewalls, or a vertical cave having some facets of {111}. In a part of the COP, oxygen was detected by TEM-EDX. It was suggested that the microstructure shape of the COP's has been determined until the mirror polishing is finished. The size of the COP becomes larger and the slopes of the COP become gentler after an anneal in 3% O2/N2 at 1150° C for 4 h and removal of the SiO2 layer by HF solution. The depth of the COP becomes shallower, its size larger and its corners rounder by annealing in H2 at 1100° C for 1 min. The COP's disappear by anealing in H2 at 1150° C for 4 h.

Dating of cave sediments at Wee Jasper, New South Wales, by magnetostratigraphy

Previously Punchbowl, Signature and Dogleg Caves low down in the Goodradigbee valley at Wee Jasper, NSW, could only be inferred to be younger than Early Miocene basalts on the plateau to the west. Five main quasi‐horizontal cave levels, with discrete bodies of fluvial sediment at more frequent intervals, invited application of magnetostratigraphy to this sequence of passages, which are successively younger downwards, in the hope of more precise dating. Thirteen sites at 10 altitudes over a range of 31 m were sampled at 2–8 points each. The lower third of the system yielded normal polarity and so formed since 0.73 Ma. Treating the palaeomagnetic data conservatively, the upper two thirds, yielding dominantly reversed polarities, can be regarded as forming between the Brunhes‐Matuyama boundary and the Jaramillo. However, this implies a drastic change in rate of lowering of local karst base level and valley incision for which there is no morphological support. Assuming a linear rate of vertical cave developme...

Relict caves as evidence of landscape and aquifer evolution in a deeply dissected carbonate terrain: Southwest Edwards Plateau, Texas, U.S.A.

Caves lying well above valley floors and within narrow ridges of carbonate rocks in the deeply dissected southwest Edwards Plateau, Texas, provide considerable information about the geomorphic history of the region and the evolution of the Edwards-Trinity aquifer. In the Sonora area, horizontally extensive cave passages occur at three distinct levels along massive burrowed dolomitic beds in the Cretaceous Segovia Formation. Passages lying beneath a resistant caprock consist of long corridors, barren of speleothems. However, in the vicinity of the caprock edge, passages are modified by collapse and stoping, mazework, and speleothem deposition. Conduits are generally oriented down the regional dip and guided by dominant NE-trending fractures. Upper cave levels developed first, but lower passages were excavated as piezometric surfaces dropped in response to valley cutting. Cavern collapses blocked flowpaths in places and ensuing floodwaters enlarged passages, formed maze sections, and promoted development of diversion routes around these constrictions. Collapse at the caprock edge has enhanced retreat of valley slopes and headward erosion of streams. In the Langtry area, caves developed in the Cretaceous Devils River Formation are up to 113 m deep. The Devils River Formation is a stratigraphically-homogeneous high-purity limestone, in which fractures are few but vertically extensive. Incision of the Rio Grande and nearby streams has locally exposed up to 70 m of the Devils River Formation, inducing steep hydraulic gradients that have promoted bathyphreatic circulation and development of deep cave systems. Horizontal passages are relatively short and are connected by vertical shafts and steeply inclined corridors. The two localities have experienced similar climates and dissection in topography, but the relationship of stream incision to geologic structure, stratigraphy and lithology has differed significantly enough to produce long horizontal caves within the shallow phreatic zone around Sonora and deep vertical caves in the deep phreatic zone around Langtry.

A Vertical Cave as a Winter Cultivator

A Vertical Cave as a Winter Cultivator