Ability In Old Age Research Articles

Driving competence in older age: psychological assessment and interventions

The article introduces the issue of psychological assessment and training for driving safety, driving competence, and the mobility of older drivers. The psychological methods for assessing driving competence and the training approaches for maintaining mobility in old age are outlined and illustrated with examples. Preserving driving ability in old age remains atask for which development needs and research gaps must be specified. Although periodic mandatory examinations based on age do not yield any relevant improvement in enhancing traffic safety, they do not cause harm and are widely accepted. It is desirable to move away from atheory focusing on deficits of older age and instead develop an assessment of the comprehensive functions, abilities, and resources of elderly drivers to help preserve the mobility and participation of that specific demographic in traffic.

Relationship Between Physical Activity and Blood Pressure in Hypertensive Elderly at UPTD Puskesmas Susut I

Introduction: Hypertension is a common problem experienced by some elderly due to several changes in the body's system. This condition is also influenced by several other factors such as decreased activity ability in old age. This study aimed to determine the relationship between physical activity and blood pressure in hypertensives elderly at the Working Area of UPTD Puskesmas Susut I. Method: This study used a correlational analytic design with a cross sectional approach. This study involved 83 samples selected through purposive sampling technique. Data were collected using the Physical Activity Scale for Elderly (PASE) questionnaire and analyzed using the Rank Spearman test. Result: The results showed that the physical activity of the elderly had an average value of 11.43 or categorized as mild physical activity with an average systolic blood pressure was 157 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure was 97 mmHg. There is a relationship between physical activity and blood pressure in hypertensives elderly at the working area of UPTD Puskesmas Susut I (p-value = 0.000). Conclusion: There is a relationship between physical activity and blood pressure in hypertensives elderly. This research can improve nursing services for the elderly with hypertension through providing activities that can increase the physical activity of the elderly

Grey-matter structure in cortical and limbic regions correlates with general cognitive ability in old age

According to the maintenance hypothesis (Nyberg et al., 2012), structural integrity of the brain’s grey matter helps to preserve cognitive functioning into old age. A corollary of this hypothesis that can be tested in cross-sectional data is that grey-matter structural integrity and general cognitive ability are positively associated in old age. Building on Köhncke et al. (2021), who found that region-specific latent factors of grey-matter integrity are positively associated with episodic memory ability among older adults, we examine associations between general factors of grey-matter integrity and a general factor of cognitive ability in a cross-sectional sample of 1466 participants aged 60–88 years, 319 of whom contributed imaging data. Indicator variables based on T1-weighted images (voxel-based morphometry, VBM), magnetization-transfer imaging (MT), and diffusion tensor imaging-derived mean diffusivity (MD) had sufficient portions of variance in common to establish latent factors of grey-matter structure for a comprehensive set of regions of interest (ROI). Individual differences in grey-matter factors were positively correlated across neocortical and limbic areas, allowing for the definition of second-order, general factors for neocortical and limbic ROI, respectively. Both general grey-matter factors were positively correlated with general cognitive ability. For the basal ganglia, the three modality-specific indicators showed heterogenous loading patterns, and no reliable associations of the general grey-matter factor to general cognitive ability were found. To provide more direct tests of the maintenance hypothesis, we recommend applying the present structural modeling approach to longitudinal data, thereby enhancing the physiological validity of latent constructs of brain structure.

A unified framework for the measurement of mobility in older persons.

Mobility is often referred to as a 'sixth vital sign' because of its ability to predict critical health outcomes in later adulthood. In the World Health Organization (WHO) World Report on Aging and Health, mobility is described as movement in all its forms whether powered by the body or a vehicle. As such, mobility encompasses basic physical actions such as getting up from a chair and walking, as well as activities such as exercising, driving and using public transportation. A plethora of measurement tools have been developed to assess various aspects of mobility; however, there is wide variability in the mobility constructs being measured which limits standardisation and meaningful comparison across studies. In this paper, we propose a comprehensive framework for measuring mobility that considers three distinct facets of mobility: perceived mobility ability ('what can you do'), actual mobility ability ('what you actually do') and locomotor capacity for mobility ('what could you do'). These three facets of mobility are rooted in the three components of healthy aging endorsed by the WHO: functional ability, intrinsic capacity and environments. By proposing a unified framework for measuring mobility based on theory and empirical evidence, we can advance the science of monitoring and managing mobility to ensure functional ability in older age.

The Mediating Role of Affective States in Short-Term Effects of Activity Engagement on Working Memory in Older Age

Introduction: It has been shown that activity engagement is associated with cognitive ability in older age, but mechanisms behind the associations have rarely been examined. Following a recent study which showed short-term effects of activity engagement on working memory performance appearing 6 h later, this study examined the mediating role of affective states in this process. Methods: For 7 times per day over 2 weeks, 150 Swiss older adults (aged 65–91 years) reported their present (sociocognitive/passive leisure) activities and affective states (high-arousal positive, low-arousal positive, high-arousal negative, and low-arousal negative) and completed an ambulatory working memory task on a smartphone. Results: Multilevel vector autoregression models showed that passive leisure activities were associated with worse working memory performance 6 h later. Passive leisure activities were negatively associated with concurrent high-arousal positive affect (and high-arousal negative affect); high-arousal positive affect was negatively associated with working memory performance 6 h later. A Sobel test showed a significant mediation effect of high-arousal positive affect linking the time-lagged relationship between passive leisure activities and working memory. Additionally, sociocognitive activities were associated with better working memory performance 6 h later. Sociocognitive activities were associated with concurrent higher high- and low-arousal positive affect, which, however, were not associated with working memory performance 6 h later. Thus, a mediation related to sociocognitive activities was not found. Discussion: Passive leisure activities could influence working memory performance through high-arousal positive affect within a timeframe of several hours. Results are discussed in relation to an emotional, and possibly a neuroendocrine, pathway explaining the time-lagged effects of affective states on working memory performance.

Early socioeconomic status, social mobility and cognitive trajectories in later life: A life course perspective

Using the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS) from 2008 to 2018 accompanied by the growth curve model, we examined the association between early socioeconomic status, social mobility, and divergent cognitive trajectories in later life within a society undergoing significant transformation. The study confirmed a positive relationship between socioeconomic status in early life and cognitive ability in later life. However, socioeconomic status in adulthood is associated with better cognitive ability in old age compared to that in childhood. Meanwhile, upward social mobility mitigates the negative correlation between socioeconomic disadvantage in early life and cognitive ability in later life. In addition, the inequality in socioeconomic status at earlier stages resulted in heterogeneous cognitive trajectories, with the double cumulative disadvantage effect resulting from education being particularly noteworthy. Thus, Chinese health policy should focus on the earlier stages of life, actively promoting inclusive family policies and improving the family's role in protecting childhood from an adverse environment. Simultaneously, education and employment fairness should be strengthened to accelerate social mobility and enhance the “Health Repair Mechanism” of the second life course.

The role of acute changes in mBDNF, cortisol and pro-BDNF in predicting cognitive performance in old age

The interplay between biomarkers of relevance to neuroplasticity and its association with learning and cognitive ability in old age remains poorly understood. The present study investigated acute changes in plasma concentrations of mature brain-derived neurotrophic factor (mBDNF), its precursor protein (pro-BDNF), and cortisol, in response to acute physical exercise and cognitive training interventions, their covariation and role in predicting cognitive performance. Confirmatory results provided no support for mBDNF, pro-BDNF and cortisol co-varying over time, as the acute interventions unfolded, but did confirm a positive association between mBDNF and pro-BDNF at rest. The confirmatory results did not support the hypothesis that mBDNF change following physical exercise were counteracted by temporally coupled changes in cortisol or pro-BDNF, or by cortisol at rest, in its previously demonstrated faciliatory effect on cognitive training outcome. Exploratory results instead provided indications of a general and trait-like cognitive benefit of exhibiting greater mBDNF responsiveness to acute interventions when coupled with lesser cortisol responsiveness, greater pro-BDNF responsiveness, and lower cortisol at rest. As such, the results call for future work to test whether certain biomarker profiles are associated with preserved cognition in old age.

EXPLAINING THE RACIAL AND ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN ADL DISABILITY AMONG OLDER ADULTS: A POLYSOCIAL SCORE APPROACH

Abstract Disability in activities of daily life (ADL) is prevalent among older Americans. Racial and ethnic disparities in functional ability in old age continue to be a public health concern. We examined whether social environment, measured in a comprehensive way (polysocial score approach), could modify the racial and ethnic differences in ADL disability. Data are from the Health and Retirement Study; 5,925 older adults initially free of disability were included. Six ADLs were considered: bathing, eating, using the toilet, dressing, walking across the room, and getting in/out of bed. We included 24 social factors from five categories (economic stability, neighborhood environment, education, community/social context, and healthcare system) and used forward stepwise regression to screen for important ones. Polysocial score was created using 13 social factors and was classified as low (0-19), intermediate (20-30), and high (31+). We used the multivariable Poisson regression to estimate the risk of incident disability by three polysocial score categories and evaluate the interaction between race/ethnicity (non-Hispanic Whites and Others) and the polysocial score. A higher polysocial score is associated with a lower disability risk among non-Hispanic Whites and Others. We found an additive interaction between race/ethnicity and polysocial score categories. In the low polysocial score group, non-Hispanic Whites had a 4.7% lower risk of disability than the Others, while the difference significantly reduced to 2.4% and 2.6% in the intermediate and high polysocial score group, respectively. The polysocial score approach offers a new opportunity to explain the racial/ethnic disparities in functional capacity among older adults.

Structural and Functional MRI Data Differentially Predict Chronological Age and Behavioral Memory Performance.

Human cognitive abilities decline with increasing chronological age, with decreased explicit memory performance being most strongly affected. However, some older adults show "successful aging," that is, relatively preserved cognitive ability in old age. One explanation for this could be higher brain-structural integrity in these individuals. Alternatively, the brain might recruit existing resources more efficiently or employ compensatory cognitive strategies. Here, we approached this question by testing multiple candidate variables from structural and functional neuroimaging for their ability to predict chronological age and memory performance, respectively. Prediction was performed using support vector machine (SVM) classification and regression across and within two samples of young (N = 106) and older (N = 153) adults. The candidate variables were (1) behavioral response frequencies in an episodic memory test; (2) recently described functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scores reflecting preservation of functional memory networks; (3) whole-brain fMRI contrasts for novelty processing and subsequent memory; (4) resting-state fMRI maps quantifying voxel-wise signal fluctuation; and (5) gray matter volume estimated from structural MRIs. While age group could be reliably decoded from all variables, chronological age within young and older subjects was best predicted from gray matter volume. In contrast, memory performance was best predicted from task-based fMRI contrasts and particularly single-value fMRI scores, whereas gray matter volume has no predictive power with respect to memory performance in healthy adults. Our results suggest that superior memory performance in healthy older adults is better explained by efficient recruitment of memory networks rather than by preserved brain structure.

Work ability and physical fitness among aging workers: the Finnish Retirement and Aging Study

BackgroundWith advancing age, physical capacity gradually decreases which may lead to decreased work ability, if the physical work requirements remain the same. Examination of the importance of physical fitness for work ability among aging workers will help to find potential strategies to promote work ability in old age. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between physical fitness and work ability among aging workers.MethodsAging workers (n = 288, mean age 62.5, 83% women) from the Finnish Retirement and Aging study underwent cardiorespiratory, muscular fitness and functional testing. Work ability was inquired on a scale 0–10 from poor to excellent. Association between physical fitness indicators and work ability was examined using ordinary least squares regression, taking into account age, gender, occupational status, heavy physical work, body mass index and accelerometer-measured daily total physical activity.ResultsVO2peak, modified push-up test and maximal walking speed were positively associated with work ability (β = 0.51, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.29–0.74, β = 0.46, 95% CI 0.26–0.66 and β = 0.23, 95% CI 0.07–0.39, respectively), while chair rise test time was inversely associated with work ability (β = −0.23, 95% CI −0.39–−0.06). No associations were found between hand grip strength or sit-up test and work ability.ConclusionsCardiorespiratory fitness, upper body strength, and lower extremity function were positively associated with work ability. Good physical fitness may help to maintain work ability among aging workers.

Healthy Eating Enhances Intrinsic Capacity, Thus Promoting Functional Ability of Retirement Home Residents in Northern Taiwan.

Healthy aging is defined as the process of developing and maintaining functional ability in older age with intrinsic capacity, the composite of all the physical and mental capacities of an individual, being the core. This study was conducted to explore the intervention effects of improved dietary quality on intrinsic capacity. A prospective single-group interventional quasi-experimental study with 59 functional independent older adults from retirement homes were recruited. Texture-modified plant-based dietary supplements were provided. In addition, dietary intake, functional ability, and intrinsic capacity in vitality, locomotion, cognition, and psychological capacity were assessed. Vitality was captured by nutritional status, muscle strength, and cardiorespiratory endurance. Locomotor capacity was assessed based on the performance of physical fitness in backscratch test, chair-sit-and-reach test, chair-stand test, one-foot-standing test, and gaits peed. Psychomotor capacity and cognition were measured by using 15-item Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15) and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), respectively. In a 4-month of intervention, after controlling for baseline values and covariates, participants with higher dietary intervention adherence showed a significant improvement over time in vitality captured by cardiorespiratory endurance (Pinteraction = 0.009) and significant improvement in locomotion captured by gait speed (Pclusters = 0.034). A significant decrease in the chair-stand test (Ptime = <0.001) and MMSE (Ptime = 0.022) was observed during the four months of intervention. Enhanced intrinsic capacity further contributed to the improvement of ADL over time (Pinteraction = 0.034). In conclusion, healthy eating enhances intrinsic capacity in vitality and locomotion thus promoting functional ability among older adults.

Resilience of visually guided weight shifting to a proprioceptive perturbation depends on the complexity of the guidance stimulus

BackgroundWhole-body tracking of visual motion cues is used in balance training to improve weight shifting ability in old age and sports. Research questionHow tracking of a complex (pink noise) and a periodic visual target motion during anteroposterior weight shifting affects postural and muscle responses to unilateral hip vibration. MethodsTwenty-six participants performed 160 anteroposterior weight shifting cycles while tracking the vertical motion of a visual target, concurrently receiving Center of Pressure (CoP) feedback. They were randomly divided to groups; (a) the Constant group tracked a visual target motion constructed by 3 sinusoids of different amplitude, and (b) the Pink group tracked a complex visual target motion constructed by a pink noise generation process. Between the 60th and the 120th cycle, vibration was applied to the right gluteus medius, introducing a sideways CoP deviation. CoP displacement and electromyographic (EMG) responses of soleus, tibialis anterior and peroneus longus were recorded and summarized in blocks of 3 cycles. ResultsSideways CoP deviation induced at the onset/offset of unilateral hip vibration was smaller for the Pink than the Constant group. The Pink group demonstrated greater tibialis anterior and peroneus longus EMG activity around the most anterior sway peak while soleus EMG was similar for the two groups. Both groups successfully coupled weight shifting amplitude to the target motion, but the Pink group tracked the target motion with a greater delay compared to the Constant group. SignificanceWhole body tracking of complex visual motions evokes perception-based action and increases ankle muscle co-activation making sway more resilient to a proprioceptive perturbation induced by unilateral hip vibration. Complex visual guidance motions should be considered when designing balance rehabilitation regimes, aiming at improving weight shifting ability and dynamic balance control.

Physical Resilience: A novel approach for healthy aging.

Population aging is evident globally. The traditional model of care based on disease management is not sufficient to develop a generation of functional older adult population. The construct of Physical Resilience (PR) holds great potential to make the agenda of healthy aging a reality if we were to properly understand it and develop intervention strategies to maintain PR through life. There are several difficulties and challenges with this novel construct that need to be resolved through research, so as to foster its vast possibilities to maintain functional ability in old age.

Trauma and Mentalization Ability in Older Patients

Abstract. The topic of trauma and aging has been studied more frequently in the recent past from the perspective of the consequences of early trauma experiences, especially in the context of war experiences. However, trauma can also occur later in life and have lasting consequences into older age. The study presented here assumed that these consequences can also manifest themselves in an impairment of mentalization ability. It examined a sample of patients between 40 and 80 years of age from a psychosomatic clinic ( N = 150) was examined with the Essen Trauma Inventory (ETI) and two mentalization instruments. Results show that, as age increased, stressful events in adulthood correspond with impairment in mentalization ability in old age. Regarding posttraumatic symptomatology, the influence of intrusions increased as age increased. Finally, the results are discussed in a theoretical and therapeutic context.

Contribution of IQ in young adulthood to the associations of education and occupation with cognitive ability in older age

BackgroundStudies suggest that a higher education and occupation are each associated with a higher late-life cognitive ability, but their inter-relationships in their association with cognitive ability and the contribution of peak IQ in young adulthood (‘pre-morbid IQ’) often remain unclear.MethodsCross-sectional analysis of 623 participants aged ≥65 years of the BioCog study. Education was coded according to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED; range 1 to 6). Occupation was coded as ‘semi/unskilled’, ‘skilled manual’, ‘skilled non-manual’, ‘managerial’, ‘professional’. A summary score of global ability (‘g’) was constructed from six cognitive tests. Pre-morbid IQ was estimated from vocabulary. The Geriatric Depression Scale assessed symptoms of depression. Age- and sex-adjusted analyses of covariance were performed.ResultsEducation (partial eta2 0.076; p < 0.001) and occupation (partial eta2 = 0.037; p < 0.001) were each significantly associated with g. For education, the association was attenuated but remained statistically significant when pre-morbid IQ was controlled for (partial eta2 0.036; p < 0.001) and was unchanged with additional adjustment for depression (partial eta2 0.037; p < 0.001). For occupation, the association with g was no longer significant when pre-morbid IQ (partial eta2 = 0.015; p = 0.06) and depression (partial eta2 = 0.011; p = 0.18) were entered as covariates in separate steps. When education and occupation were entered concurrently into the fully adjusted model, only education was independently associated with g (partial eta2 0.030; p < 0.001; occupation, p = 0.93).ConclusionWhile a higher education and a higher occupation were each associated with a higher late-life cognitive ability, only for education some unique contribution to cognitive ability remained over and above its relationship with pre-morbid IQ, depression, and occupation. Further research is needed to address whether a longer time spent in education may promote late-life cognitive ability.

Intrinsic Capacity as a Determinant of Physical Resilience in Older Adults.

The traditional disease-oriented model of healthcare is inadequate to address the needs of the older population. Greater attention should be given to strategies that promote healthy aging. Recently proposed constructs of intrinsic capacity (IC) and physical resilience (PR) hold great potential to reshape geriatric medicine and aging research. These constructs accentuate the positive health attributes of older people in contrast to the popular frailty construct that is centered on functional deficits. IC was introduced by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a composite of all the physical and mental capacities. WHO has emphasized enhancement of IC throughout the life course so as to maintain functional ability in old age. PR, recently highlighted by the National Institute on Aging, is the ability to successfully cope with stressors. High levels of resilience can result in desirable clinical and functional outcomes after stressors. Therefore, it is important to understand the underlying physiology of PR and the risk factors contributing to diminished PR. The main goal of this article is to explore the potential relationship between IC and PR. Based on a classical theory of aging, we postulate that IC is a determinant of PR and is also a high-level integrative measure of physiologic reserve which is the fundamental factor underlying one’s ability to withstand stressors. A major implication of our postulates is that even though IC is only one of the many determinants of PR, it could serve as an important intervenable target for enhancing resilience in older adults.

Empirical assessment of biases in cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease: an umbrella review and re-analysis of data from meta-analyses.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a leading cause of years lived with disability in older age, and several cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) markers have been proposed in individual meta-analyses to be associated with AD but field-wide evaluation and scrutiny of the literature is not available. We performed an umbrella review for the reported associations between CSF biomarkers and AD. Data from available meta-analyses were reanalyzed using both random and fixed effects models. We also estimated between-study heterogeneity, small-study effects, excess significance, and prediction interval. A total of 38 meta-analyses on CSF markers from 11 eligible articles were identified and reanalyzed. In 14 (36%) of the meta-analyses, the summary estimate and the results of the largest study showed non-concordant results in terms of statistical significance. Large heterogeneity (I2≥75%) was observed in 73% and small-study effects under Egger's test were shown in 28% of CSF biomarkers. Our results suggest that there is an excess of statistically significant results and significant biases in the literature of CSF biomarkers for AD. Therefore, the results of CSF biomarkers should be interpreted with caution.

Effects of a cognitive stimulation software on attention, memory, and activities of daily living in Mexican older adults

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of a cognitive stimulation software on attention, memory, reasoning, planning, and frequency of activities of daily living, in Mexican older adults. To carry out this research, an experimental research design was used, comprising two groups (experimental, n = 28 and control on a waiting list, n = 33) with pre- and post-evaluation, where adults over 60 years of age gathered in meeting centers to complete a sociodemographic data sheet, a psychometric test that evaluates attention, memory, reasoning, planning, and an inventory of activities of daily living of the elderly. The participants interacted with the software via touchscreens for 12 cognitive stimulation exercises. The results indicate improvements in the participants’ attention and concentration, and in the types of work, logic, and spontaneous memory, as well as a significant increase in the frequency of instrumental activities in the home by participants of both sexes, and in the social activities of the men. It was concluded that cognitive stimulation software can be used in Mexican older adults to achieve improvements in cognitive functioning. This is justified due to the importance of maintaining cognitive abilities in old age since their deterioration affects activities of daily living, which are essential for an independent life.

Financial and health literacy discrepancies with cognition in older adults.

Greater financial and health literacy are associated with better cognition; however, research suggests that some individuals exhibit differences, or discrepancies, in these abilities in old age. We investigated discrepancies between literacy and cognition and factors associated with such discrepancies in older adults without dementia. Participants (N = 714; Mage = 81.4; education: M = 15.4; 75.4% female; 5.2% non-White) from the Rush Memory and Aging Project completed cognitive assessments and a financial and health literacy measure that yielded a total literacy score. Participants were characterized into three groups: (a) total literacy scores that are more than one standard deviation (1 SD) above cognition (L > C), (b) total literacy scores falling more than 1 SD below cognition (L < C), and (c) total literacy within 1 SD of cognition (L = C). Logistic regressions were employed to investigate associations between demographic and psychosocial variables and discrepancy group status. Of the 714 participants, 24% showed significant discrepancies. In fully adjusted models, in reference to the L = C group, male sex was associated with greater odds of being in the L > C group (odds ratio [OR] = 2.32, 95% CI [1.33, 4.03], p = .003) and lower odds of being in the L < C group (OR = 0.31, 95% CI [0.14, 0.66], p = .002), higher income was associated with lower odds of being in either discrepancy group (L < C OR = 0.87, 95% CI [0.79, 0.96], p = .004; L > C OR = 0.86, 95% CI [0.76, 0.96], p = .007), and higher trust was associated with lower odds of being in the L > C group (OR = 0.92, 95% CI [0.85, 0.99], p = .030). Findings support literacy and cognition as partially dissociable constructs and highlight important factors associated with discrepancies between literacy and cognition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Perivascular spaces in the centrum semiovale at the beginning of the 8th decade of life: effect on cognition and associations with mineral deposition

Brain iron deposits (IDs) are indicative of microvessel dysfunction which may predispose to small vessel disease (SVD) brain damage and worsen cognition later in life. Visible perivascular spaces in the centrum semiovale (CSO-PVS) are SVD features linked with microvessel dysfunction. We examined possible associations of CSO-PVS volume and count with brain IDs and cognitive abilities in 700 community-dwelling individuals from the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936 who underwent detailed cognitive testing and multimodal brain MRI at mean age 72.7 years. Brain IDs were assessed automatically followed by manual editing. PVS were automatically assessed in the centrum semiovale and deep corona radiata supraventricular. General factors of overall cognitive function (g), processing speed (g-speed) and memory (g-memory) were used in the analyses. Median (IQR) volumes of IDs and CSO-PVS expressed as a percentage of intracranial volume were 0.0021 (0.011) and 0.22 (0.13)% respectively. Median count of CSO-PVS was 410 (IQR = 201). Total volumes of CSO-PVS and ID, adjusted for head size, were correlated (Spearman ρ = 0.13, p < 0.001). CSO-PVS volume, despite being correlated with all three cognitive measures, was only associated with g-memory (B = -114.5, SE = 48.35, p = 0.018) in general linear models, adjusting for age, sex, vascular risk factors, childhood intelligence and white matter hyperintensity volume. The interaction of CSO-PVS count with diabetes (B = -0.0019, SE = 0.00093, p = 0.041) and volume with age (B = 1.57, SE = 0.67, p = 0.019) were also associated with g-memory. Linear regression models did not replicate these associations. Therefore, it does not seem that CSO-PVS burden is directly associated with general cognitive ability in older age.