Abdolkarim Soroush Research Articles

Education for Religion: An Islamic Perspective

This essay proposes a novel approach to religious education, one that stands in stark contrast to the often rigid and dogmatic nature of traditional religious instruction. The proposed approach seeks to cultivate deep awareness within students regarding their inherent limitations and their role as entrusted stewards in the grand design of God. It encourages students to move away from the temptation of godlike aspirations, such as the pursuit of boundless power and knowledge, instead positioning life on Earth as a divine destiny offering opportunities for growth, learning, and realizing one’s God-given potential. This form of religious education embraces doubt, uncertainty, and ambiguity, recognizing them as sources of motivation and meaning in a profound journey of faith. Inspired by John Hick’s and Abdolkarim Soroush’s works, this approach transcends traditional religious literacy, focusing on an encounter with the transcendent noumenal Real, and it is characterized by a sense of speechless awe, wonder, and astonishment before the riddles of existence and the beauty of the world. Ultimately, this essay underscores the importance of approaching religion as a system of relationships rather than as an ideology with all-encompassing answers.

The Impact of Knowledge on the Interpretation of Ethics

The overall theme of this article is the relationship between knowledge, religion, and ethics in Islam. The first goal is to show how the concept of knowledge has been understood in relation to religion and intellectual life and what the relationship is between universal, philosophical, and religious knowledge. The second goal is to show, using examples from Islamic philosophy of religion, how a certain concept of knowledge affects the interpretation of morals and Islamic ethics. This implies, among other things, a discussion of epistemology, the interpretation of the Qur'an, and the definition of ethical principles. A general assumption is that the definition of a Muslim as a moral agent – which is considered one of the central issues of the Qur'an, Sunnah, and Islam in general – is not given as an unequivocal category, but is subject to constant discussion that takes place at different levels and areas. This is especially evident in modern Islamic philosophical-theological discourse, where Fazlur Rahman, Mohammed Arkoun, Hassan Hanafi, Abdolkarim Soroush, and Amina Wadud are only some of the important actors of the discussion.

Reinterpreting Muhammadiyah’s Purification and Its Implications for the Educational Philosophy

This article mainly explores the changing and development of thought that occurred in one of the largest modernist Islamic organizations in Indonesia, Muhammadiyah, regarding Islamic purification. Using intellectual history as an approach, this research concluded that even though Muhammadiyah had purification as its main characteristic, in fact it had its own reinterpretation being extended and expanded. By implementing Abdolkarim Soroush’s theory of contraction and expansion of religious knowledge, this research found that in the very early days of its inception, Muhammadiyah constructed its concept of purification from the spiritualization, rationalization, and functionalization of Islamic teachings. But after the inception of Tarjih division in 1927, the purification in Muhammadiyah had a narrower orientation from worships and creeds (puritanism) to the muamalah of world affairs (ultra-puritanism). Beginning in 1995, there was a wider scope in which the Tarjih division in Muhammadiyah expanded its issues of worship to include public and humanitarian issues; that era was called post-puritanism. Based on the core hypothesis that any changes in religious thought have implications for educational orientation, from George R. Knight’s perspective, several educational implications are obtained: (1) In the early days of its inception, Muhammadiyah’s education implemented a progressivism philosophy that’s inspired by religion, rationality, and life; (2) when it comes to the narrower aspect of purification only for faith, worship, and muamalah, Muhammadiyah shifted its educational philosophy to perennialism-essentialism; (3) when the purification's meaning and interpretation expanded, Muhammadiyah tended its education toward the philosophy of reconstructionism.

Abdolkarim Soroush’s Philosophy of Religion

The fundamental features of Abdolkarim Soroush’s philosophy of religion is an issue that is at the very heart of the article. Although he is one of the most important contemporary Muslim thinkers who has offered a significant contribution in the field of political philosophy, philosophy of science, sociology of knowledge, and mysticism, our focus remains on Soroush's philosophical interpretation of religion. The theory of the expansion of religious knowledge, which represents a real epistemological turn, as well as the theory of the expansion of prophetic experience, are the cornerstone of his philosophy of religion, which appears as the very key to his reformist discourse. With Fazlur Rahman (1919-1988), Isma’il Faruqi (1921-1986), Mohammad Arqouna (1928-2010), Hassan Hanafi (1935-2021), Nasr Abu Zayd (1943-2010), and Muhammad ‘Abid Jabiri (1935-2010), Abdolkarim Soroush appears as one of the most prominent contemporary Muslim neo-rationalists.

Epistemology of religion and phenomenology of revelation in post-revolutionary Iran: The case of Abdolkarim Soroush

Abdolkarim Soroush’s theory of ‘The Theoretical Contraction and Expansion of Religious Knowledge’ is arguably one of the most controversial theories of religion in post-revolutionary Iran. Soroush’s theory paves the way for recognising a pluralist interpretation of religion (Islam) by merging the epistemological and hermeneutical theory of religion. However, he later adds another approach to his reformist framework to explain the phenomenon of revelation. In this paper, after carefully laying out Soroush’s contraction and expansion theory, I will discuss his three approaches, that is, epistemological, hermeneutical and phenomenological approaches to religion, through presenting Kantian and Quinian interpretations of contraction and expansion of religious knowledge, addressing the epistemology of contraction and expansion and the phenomenology of revelation, and pointing out some issues about error recognition within contraction and expansion of religious knowledge. I argue that the role of error recognition is crucial in understanding Soroush’s reformist project since it links his epistemology and hermeneutics of religious knowledge to the way he theorises about revelation phenomenologically.

Sedigheh Vasmaghi: A new voice of Iranian religious reformism

AbstractThis article explores the ideas of Iranian reformist scholar Sedigheh Vasmaghi and her contribution to religious reformist thought in Iran. As this article demonstrates, a significant aspect of Vasmaghi's work concerns how she understands the extent to which the legal aspects of the Qurʾān and the associated rulings found infiqhliterature are relevant to the conditions of the modern world. This article investigates Vasmaghi's ideas about the Qurʾān and her contextualist approach to interpretation, arguing that her views on Islam's socio-legal rulings are rooted in her approach to the Qurʾān. As the article will demonstrate, Vasmaghi's ideas add to the work of other prominent Iranian reformist scholars such as Abdolkarim Soroush, Muhammad Mujtahed Shabestari, Mohsen Kadivar and Hassan Yousefi Eshkevari, but her approach is also subject to criticism, in particular her manner of differentiating between the mutable and immutable aspects of religion.

Political Theology in Iran: Critiques of the Guardianship of Jurist in Light of Reformist Iranian Scholarship

ABSTRACT This article examines a specific line of thinking shared by several contemporary Iranian reformist scholars which emerged partly in response to the doctrine of velāyat-e faqīh, a political-theological theory instigated by Ayatollah Khomeini. Focusing on the ideas of reformist Iranian scholars, such as Abdolkarim Soroush, Muhammad Mujtahed Shabestari, Hasan Yousefi Eshkevari, Mohsen Kadivar and Ahmad Qabel, unpacks these thinkers’ views concerning the doctrine of velāyat-e faqīh. It is argued that these scholars’ criticisms of the doctrine of velāyat-e faqīh are based not only on their interpretations of the Qurʾān and Shiʿa sources, but also philosophical arguments in which notions drawn from the field of hermeneutics are employed. It is also argued that, in challenging the doctrine of velāyat-e faqīh, these scholars question the view that the fuqahā have the exclusive right to rule the country, thereby presenting alternative political theories which criticize efforts to politicize religion.

The Abdolkarim Soroush's Perspective: Relationship of Reason, Freedom, and Islamic Democracy

Abdolkarim Soroush has emerged as one of the world's leading moderate revisionist thinkers. He and his contemporaries in other Muslim countries formed what might be the equivalent of the Islamic Reformation of Christianity: the period of questioning traditional practices and beliefs that ultimately became an upheaval. Soroush's thoughts include the freedom of Muslims to interpret the Qur'an, the necessity of change in religion, the necessity of freedom of belief, and the compatibility of Islam and democracy. Soroush emphasized the rights of individuals in their relations with government and God, explaining that an ideal Islamic state can only be defined by the belief and will of the majority. The foundation always used by Soroush to explain his political theory is reason. It is the reason behind the modern man to do all his actions. Soroush distinguishes traditional man from modern man is using all his ability to change the world. Traditional people are more passive and deterministic, so they are pessimistic about the life of this world. Reason can not be sustainable if there is no freedom, faith under pressure and compulsion of religion is irrational. One will not be considered religious if he is irrational because it is rational and reason will manifest in the absence of coercion and restraint from religion

PEMIKIRAN FILSAFAT POLITIK ABDOLKARIM SOROUSH

The ideas of freedom, justice, democracy and secularism are the main themes in the study of political philosophy. This article attempts to explain Abdolkarim Soroush's political philosophy with the boundaries of themes regarding freedom, justice, secluralism and democracy. Abolkarim Soroush is a thinker in the contemporary Islamic world.

Abdolkarim Soroush’s Theory of Revelation: From Expansion and Contraction of Religious Knowledge to Prophetic Dreams

ABSTRACT The Iranian scholar Abdolkarim Soroush has recently developed an account of revelation referred to as the theory of Prophetic Dreams. This article seeks to analyse this theory and its relation to two earlier theories developed by him (that of the Contraction and Expansion of Religious Knowledge and that of the Expansion of Prophetic Experience). In addition, it explores whether the theory of Prophetic Dreams has any roots in classical Islamic literature and the ideas of Muslim theologians, mystics and philosophers in the pre-modern era. Finally, it discusses the implications of Soroush’s theory of Prophetic Dreams for issues related to exegesis and theology, suggesting that it has an important bearing on Islamic theological discourses. The article aims to contribute to scholarly understanding of the development of Soroush’s thought by investigating aspects of his project that have not hitherto been explored.

“Evolusi-Devolusi” Pemerintahan Demokratis dalam Nalar Filosofis Abdolkarim Soroush

This article tries to offer Abdolkarim Soroush answer to problem of inaccuracy of religious attitudes in addressing religion and democracy as a government system. In Soroush’s view, peoples sees ideology as no longer valid, when they keep on a single interpretation as solid idea. They prefer on compound, nonsecterian and charitable ideas. This study uses a philosophical-critical analysis method. The article confirms: Soroush offers a new kalām (theology) approach as intermediary way between Islam and social problems. As an intellectual-mondial, he want to present Islam that can be universally understood, follows world community common sense, is not just traditional textual approach. This option is quite sensitive and full of risk, like his criticism toward Iranian post-revolutionary government.

Freedom of Religion: The Contribution of Contemporary Iranian Reformist Scholars

This article examines a specific line of thinking shared by several contemporary reformist Iranian religious scholars who present arguments in favor of freedom of religion. Focusing on the ideas of five prominent reformist Iranian scholars—Abdolkarim Soroush (b.1945), Muhammad Mujtahed Shabestari (b.1936), Hasan Yousefi Eshkevari (b.1950), Mohsen Kadivar (b.1959), and Ahmad Qabel (d.2012)—the article argues that these thinkers’ defense of freedom of religion is based not only on their interpretations of the Qurʾān and historical Islamic sources, but also philosophical arguments in which concepts from the fields of epistemology and hermeneutics are deployed. As the article demonstrates, some of these scholars connect the notion of freedom of religion to political arguments supporting religious tolerance, or the view that, in order to guarantee religious freedom, the state must be neutral towards the religious orientation of its citizens.

Review: Lifeworlds of Islam: The Pragmatics of a Religion, by Mohammed A. Bamyeh

Review: <i>Lifeworlds of Islam: The Pragmatics of a Religion</i>, by Mohammed A. Bamyeh

A Sufi Master without a Hospice

This article examines the conceptions of Sufism and mysticism by the influential Iranian intellectual, Abdolkarim Soroush (b.1945). It situates the academic and intellectual products of Soroush in the context of Islamic modernism to study him within the discipline of religious studies in general, and Islamic studies in particular. It traces the evolution of his attitude through two relatively distinct and concurrently interconnected periods of his intellectual development. We argue that the concept of ‘Sufism’ emerged in his thought in the late 1980s as an ideal type that allowed Soroush to pursue multi-layered projects. These projects include a liberal Islam where the privatisation of religion through mysticism plays a key role, and a mild nationalist project where the concept of ‘mysticism’ is universalised in order to imagine an Iranian community that is in conversation with mysticisms of other religious traditions. We also observe that his reading of Sufism suffers from a chronic essentialism, which is exercised through ideal types. His understanding of mysticism also follows a version of experientialism in its early twentieth-century Jamesian fashion. Accordingly, the politicised demarcations of mysticism in his intellectual project are crystallised.

Muslim reformist scholars’ arguments for democracy independent of religious justification

This article examines the ideas of three contemporary Muslim reformists, namely Abdolkarim Soroush, Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, and Muhammad Mujtahed Shabestari, concerning the relationship between democracy and the Islamic principle of shura (consultation). The article aims to demonstrate how the theological-philosophical approaches of these scholars—particularly with respect to their methods of interpreting the Qurʾan and the distinctions they draw between the pre-modern and modern worldview—have contributed to the rise of a political discourse which seeks to understand concepts such as shura and democracy within their own specific epistemological and cultural contexts. This political discourse, as the article argues, supports democracy without any narrow religious justification and promotes a form of government whose legitimacy is not based on religious sources or authority, and thus is neutral towards different religions and their followers.

Philosophical hermeneutics and contemporary Muslim scholars’ approaches to interpreting scripture

Although the German philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer was not a religious thinker or theologian, his work and approach have influenced thinkers in the field of theology. This article explores some ‘overlaps’ between Gadamerian hermeneutics and the ideas of some contemporary Muslim scholars such as Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, Abdolkarim Soroush, Muhammad Mujtahed Shabestari and Hassan Hanafi regarding issues of textual interpretation and understanding. In particular, the article seeks to understand how such ideas have appeared in these Muslim scholars’ approaches to interpreting the Qurʾan. It also explores some of the implications that follow from incorporating Gadamer’s ideas into Islamic theological and political discourses. The article argues that the application of Gadamer’s hermeneutic philosophy to the realm of Qurʾanic studies is not only fruitful insofar as it provides new insights into the interpretation of the Qurʾan, but also has important consequences for Islamic theological and political discourses more broadly.

Fazlur Rahman’s Influence on Contemporary Islamic Thought

AbstractThis article examines the influence of Fazlur Rahman, one of the most widely quoted scholars among contemporary Muslim modernists, on contemporary Islamic thought. It explores how Rahman’s ideas about revelation and the interpretation of the Qurʾān have influenced some contemporary Muslim scholars of the late twentieth and early twenty‐first centuries, such as Abdolkarim Soroush, Arash Naraqi, Abdullah Saeed, Nurcholish Madjid, Farid Esack and Amina Wadud, and thus have given rise – whether directly or indirectly – to such schools of thought as Islamic liberation theology and feminist exegesis of the Qurʾān. The article also provides a critical evaluation the thought of Fazlur Rahman, and examines how its shortcomings have been rectified by his followers. The article ends with some recommendations to contextualist scholars about Qurʾānic justice and its relation with our contemporary understandings of justice.

The Prophetic and the Limitation of Authority in Modernist Islam

ABSTRACTThe “prophetic”, as a central concept in modernist Islamic political philosophy, has been invoked to show that Islamic political philosophy takes into account the spiritual as well as the material world. However, this expansion of the prophetic had remained relatively silent as to the authority that is granted to experiencing individuals. This essay is a story of these reinterpretations the “prophetic” by three major Muslim thinkers – Muhammad Iqbal (d. 1938), Ali Shari‘ati (d. 1977), and Abdolkarim Soroush (b. 1945). Writing in different periods and trying to respond to different questions, these authors engaged with the question of politics by reference to prophetic experience. I will explain their intellectual context, according to their cosmologies and their notions of language (participation vs. representation). Then, I will see how in different intellectual context, the force of a democratic notion of the prophetic was undermined by different reinterpretations.

The Influence Of Continental And Analytic Philosophy On the New Thinking of Iran

The aim of this study is a comparative study of the influence of continental and analytical philosophy on the New Thinking of Iran with emphasis on Abdolkarim Soroush and Reza Davari. In Iran society Since the 1960s, the discussions were formed, that these discussions from 1980 onward was more visible in the form of two rival discourse with a focus on Reza Davari and Soroush. Soroush influenced by Popper's philosophy of science, Logical and epistemological accuracies of analytic philosophy, Liberalism and religious interests, he consciously sought to catch up with modernity. But Reza Davari influenced by Heidegger and continental philosophy and with religious and identity interests, defended philosophy and opposed with Logicism, scientism and used western anti-enlightenment pre-assumptions and also religious entrenchment against modern human reason, and discussed anti-modern interpretations. These discourses had an impact on the formation of political, social and religious flows in Iran and each of these flows tended to answer the problems of Iranian society. These two discussions started with the disputes from the beginning of the revolution and reached their peak, but they became closer to each other in recent years.

Towards a humanistic approach to the Quran: new direction in contemporary Islamic thought

ABSTRACTHistorically, Muslim orthodoxy has regarded the Quran as God’s Word dictated to Muhammad through the mediation of the Angel Gabriel, and has thus maintained the corresponding argument that the Prophet played no role in shaping the content of the Quranic revelations. This paper discusses a project of what I shall refer to as ‘reforming theology’ within contemporary Islamic scholarship which stands in contrast to the dominant orthodox view of revelation and the nature of the Quran. In particular, the paper examines how several contemporary Muslim scholars, namely Fazlur Rahman (from Pakistan), Abdolkarim Soroush and Muhammad Mujtahed Shabestari (from Iran) and Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd (from Egypt), challenge the widely accepted idea about the Quran being the literal Word of God. The paper argues that the project of these scholars represents a radically new direction in Islamic theology because of its strong emphasis on the human side of the Quran. It also shows that the implications of these scholars’ re-examination of traditional theories of revelation are not only limited to theological matters, or specifically the communicative relationship between God and His Prophet, but also have a number of consequences for the practice of exegesis.