5th Century BCE Research Articles

Local Scripts and State Formation in Northern Greece and the Northern Aegean

Beyond the colonial city-states on the coast and their immediate vicinity, several local scripts are attested across the Thracian and Macedonian hinterland in the Archaic period. These are not only different to one another but also foreign to the area, coming either from the colonies or from other parts of Greece. Having demonstrated that a uniform script is characteristic of a state, it is argued that the lack of local scripts among the ethnê implies not just lack of a developed epigraphic habit, but also lack of developed political institutions. It is further argued that the earliest evidence of an epigraphic habit in Macedonia occurs in the latter half of the 4th century BCE, concurrently with the socio-political transformation of the kingdom following the consolidation of Macedonia in the mid‑4th century BCE.

The Significance of Modern Agreements Between Greece and Egypt as Secondary Readings: the echoes of Herodotus and Thucydides

Greece and Egypt, developed individually in two continents Europe and Africa, respectively, have maintained long beneficial relations since pre-historic times. The earliest evidence of Greek-Egyptian relations was uncovered from Minoan excavations that date back to 3000 BCE. Considering the literary sources available to examine the nature of contacts between Greece and Egypt, the Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides from the 5th century BCE reveal evidently reliable information on the bilateral agreements that prevailed between the two nations. Historians relate stories on how these two nations significantly relied on times of need during the 5th century BCE war periods. While Egypt was the grain supplier for Greek city-states, specifically Athens, Athenians repaid Egypt by extending their military power to Egypt. Further, as history reveals, both nations maintained strong trade links. Fast-forwarding to modern diplomatic relations, Greece and Egypt have continued their relations with each other up to the 21st century, irrespective of the fact that the cultures of both nations have evolved with many developments and advances. This research paper explores the contemporary importance of the bilateral agreements between Greece and Egypt, drawing parallels with the historical narratives of Herodotus and Thucydides. The paper follows a historical method in analysing the narrative of history and an analytical approach in reading the modern agreements taken under discussion. The paper intends to analyse how modern agreements between these two nations reflect and reminiscence the historical interactions, emphasizing the political, economic, and cultural significance between these powerful nations in the Mediterranean basin. By examining the historical context, the paper aims to shed light on the enduring diplomatic and cultural ties between Greece and Egypt, offering valuable knowledge for international relations in the present and future.

The testis, eunuchs, and testosterone: a historical review over the ages and around the world.

Testosterone therapy for men with testosterone deficiency is widely used, yet remains controversial. The rich and fascinating history of the testicles, including human castration, provides a valuable perspective on this important topic. This study reviewed the history of testosterone from antiquity to the modern day. Primary sources consisted of books and relevant articles, augmented by a MEDLINE search using the key words "testis," "testicles," "castration," "eunuchs," "testosterone," and "testicular function." An early scientific observation was that castration reduced sexual development and activity, originating with domestication of animals approximately 10 000years ago. Human castration appears in ancient Egyptian mythology more than 4000years ago, in Greek mythology from 8th century BCE, and in the Bible. The history of eunuchs in China spanned 2000years, beginning with the Hsia dynasty (2205-1766BCE). The concept that the testicles produced some factor responsible for male sexual development and behavior was thus known throughout the world since the beginning of recorded history. Testosterone was isolated and synthesized in 1935 and was soon available as a treatment. Multiple benefits of testosterone therapy were apparent by 1940. Recent large, controlled testosterone studies have conclusively demonstrated sexual and general health benefits, with a strong safety profile. Testosterone has been a known substance for <1% of the historical timeline, yet knowledge that the testes were responsible for male sexual development and behavior has been known since the beginning of recorded history. Today, modern evidence has demonstrated the importance of normal levels of testosterone for general health as well as sexual function and desire. Yet, testosterone therapy remains controversial. We believe this historical review provides a helpful perspective on this age-old issue.

Salt in Late Iron Age Italy. A multidisciplinary approach to the exploration of Italy’s coastal exploitation sites: Piscina Torta (Ostia, Rome) case study

During the Copper Age and onwards, unique archaeological sites emerged throughout Europe. These sites exhibit distinct features such as the absence of typical household pottery, the presence of kilns, and extensive layers composed solely of fragments of reddish-brown jars. Scholars generally interpret these sites as specialized locations for salt production through the technique of boiling saltwater, known as briquetage. In Italy, many of these sites are found along the Tyrrhenian coast and span from the Middle Bronze Age to the Roman era, with a particular concentration during the early Iron Age. However, the archaeological evidence in Italy differs from that of other European sites, suggesting that these Italian sites were not solely dedicated to salt production but also involved other economic activities. To delve deeper into the understanding of these sites and their socio-economic context, the University of Groningen initiated the Salt & Power: Early States, Rome and Resource Control project in 2021. The project aims to comprehensively analyze these sites and shed light on the production of salt within their broader societal and economic framework.In this contribution, we present preliminary findings derived from intensive surveys, coring campaigns, and geophysical investigations conducted at one such site, Piscina Torta. This site is believed to be connected to the city of Rome and dates back to the 7th and 6th centuries BCE. Furthermore, we propose a multidisciplinary workflow for studying specialized sites, incorporating various research methodologies and disciplines.

Pigments of the Campania region (Italy): a first overview for ancient wall paintings

A first overview on the ancient pigments used in Campania region was carried out from some study on ancient wall paintings located both in residential and funerary contexts. The technological skills in the individual use or mixing of pigments from the ancient painters is related to four archaeological contexts of Campania region, dated back from the 6th century BCE to the 1st century CE. The pigments were analysed by means of in–situ spectroscopic techniques and micro–destructive laboratory analyses. The multi–analytical approach revealed the use of pure (natural and synthetic) pigments and some admixtures, created by the ancient painters to obtain assorted colour shades. The same mixtures were found in different chronological contexts and made by a different manufacturer, suggesting an evident transmission of technological knowledge over time.

Plants as Symbols of Power in the Achaemenid Iconography of Ancient Persian Monuments

The art of the Achaemenid Empire flourished in Ancient Persia from the 6th to 4th centuries BCE, and featured stone-carved monumental structures adorned with recurring zoological and floral patterns. Such representations clearly had a symbolic meaning intimately connected to religious expression and the will of deities. Considering the lack of any comprehensive analysis of botanical features, we investigate the recurring plant patterns and the variety of plants depicted. An analysis of the documentation referring mainly to monuments in the two main capitals of Darius I, Persepolis and Susa, showed the presence of certain repetitive elements, such as the so-called rosettes (composed variously of Asteraceae capitula and Nymphaea flowers), palms (Phoenix dactylifera, the tree of life), pines, flowers or bunches and metamorphic elements. Some plants are described in this paper for the first time in the context of Persian iconography, such as Mandragora officinalis in offering scenes as a symbol of fertility and protection against evil spirits, Pinus brutia var. eldarica as a symbol of immortality and elevation to the gods, and the capitula of Matricaria/Leucanthemum as solar symbols. Further interesting elements include cf. Myrtus communis in some crowns and probably cf. Ephedra sp. in offering scenes. Achaemenid art was deeply influenced by the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia with its great attention to nature as well as by the nearby civilizations of the Mesopotamian area and Egypt. Most elements were also associated with psychotropic or medicinal attributes, which contributed to their position as symbols of power.

Mass animal sacrifice at casas del Turuñuelo (Guareña, Spain): A unique Tartessian (Iron Age) site in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula.

Zooarchaeological analyses of the skeletal remains of 52 animals unearthed in the courtyard of an Iron Age Tartessian building known as Casas del Turuñuelo (Badajoz, Spain) shed light on a massive sacrifice forming part of a series of rituals linked to the site's last period of activity and final abandonment. The rites took place towards the end of the 5th century BCE when both the building (intentionally destroyed) and the sacrificed animals were intentionally buried under a tumulus 90 m in diameter and 6 m high. The main objective of the zooarchaeological and microstratigraphic analyses was to determine the phasing of the sacrificial depositions. Evidence gathered from taphonomic assessments and a series of radiocarbon datings indicate that the sacrifices fall into three consecutive phases spanning several years. The findings of the zooarchaeological analyses clearly point to a selection of equid and cattle males. Adult equids predominate (MNI = 41) followed by adult and sub-adult cattle (MNI = 6). Pigs, in turn, are only represented by a few adults and sub-adult females (MNI = 4). Among the animals is a single dog of undetermined sex between 3 and 4 years of age. The fact that the animals are mostly adults discards the likelihood that they died from natural causes or an epidemic. In addition, the scenographic deposition of certain equids in pairs, as well as evidence of the burning of plant offerings, suggest an intentional ritualistic sacrifice. Nine of the initial depositions of Phase 1 in the SE quadrant were scattered and certain of their bones bear marks characteristic of both prolonged open air exposure and scavengers. Another 31 animals from Phases 1 and 2 are represented by almost complete, articulated skeletons, indicating they were promptly covered. Phase 3, by contrast, reveals both almost complete and partial animals bearing clear signs of processing for human consumption. This study thus sheds light on both the sequence of the animal sacrifices and the protocols linked to rites accompanied by the celebration of banquets. Certain features associated with the sealing of this building under a tumulus offer evidence of the decline of the Tartessian Culture. This study thus advances notions serving to contextualize ritual animal sacrifices in the framework of practice observed at other Iron Age sites in the Iberian Peninsula and elsewhere throughout Europe.

Biblical Genealogy and Nationalism

The chronological/genealogical narrative structure of the Hebrew Bible points to an editorial aim: to give a history of Israel as a nation from Creation to the 6th century BCE Babylonian exile and the return to the land of Israel, and in so doing to bring to life and unite two dead Near Eastern kingdoms. This article considers the scribes and editors who created the structure of the Hebrew Bible as forerunners of modern cultural nationalists, especially of defeated or endangered peoples, who sought the survival and growth of the nation in literature. However, the monotheisms that derived from Judaism, and adopted Hebrew scripture as sacred, rarely accepted the Bible as the translation or adaptation of a Jewish work in the Jewish national language mostly on Jewish soil and under Jewish government in the 1st millennium BCE. Rather, anti-Semites taught a genealogy of Jewish guilt to the world, with extra charges based on supersessionist theology and anti-Jewish fantasies.

Harbour geoarchaeology of Lechaion (Corinth area, Greece) sheds new light on economics during the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age transition

Lechaion in Corinth, Greece, is the largest ancient port in Greece. Harbour geoarchaeological investigations, based on 14C-dated palaeoenvironmental archives taken from a well-studied inner basin (Basin 3) and a still unknown outer basin (Basin 4), revealed anthropogenic lead excesses starting from the 12th century BCE, associated with brown coal fragments, for the first time discovered in such an ancient archaeological context. Given that historical sources trace the foundation of the port back to the 7th century BCE, these results attest to protohistoric industrial use of the site and push back its chronology by over five centuries. The existence of such ancient port activity not only extends the chronological horizon for harbour activity in the Corinthian area, but also provides new insights for the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age (LBA/EIA) transition, including potential trading routes that may have transited through Lechaion, likely spanning across the Gulf of Corinth and possibly even beyond, to western Mediterranean urban centers.

Crisis in motion: the final days of Iron Age I Megiddo

The destruction of Iron I Megiddo in the early 10th century BCE was a momentous event in the history of the southern Levant. It marked an abrupt break in the long cultural development of the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. Despite extensive field research, essential questions related to this event remain unanswered, especially regarding the processes that took place in the city immediately before its destruction. In this article, findings from recent excavations in the south-eastern sector of the mound, where a detailed Iron I stratigraphic sequence was explored, are reported. In addition, finds from two nearby areas previously excavated were re-evaluated, focusing mostly on contextual aspects of the osteological data. This study sheds light on the deterioration of the city in the decades preceding its final demise, and suggests that the event was caused by human agents rather than a natural disaster. It also hints that in its last days, Megiddo may have been besieged, which explains the peculiar re-appearance of intra-mural burials at the site. The case of Iron I Megiddo provides a high-resolution snapshot of actions taken by the inhabitants of a Near Eastern city on the eve of a major crisis.

New Settlement of Holercani-Hansca Cultural Horizon in Republic of Moldova

As a result of field surveys of the last years, the new site of Holercani-Hansca cultural group – Andreevca-I settlement has been found. The purpose of this research paper is the characteristics of the mentioned site and the interim results of its study.&#x0D; Results. Andreevca-I settlement is located in Orhei raion of the Republic of Moldova, at the lands of Chiperceni Community. The site is located 0.38 km northeast of the village of Andreevca and 0.28 km northwest of the pond of the village of Andreevca; on the left bank of the stream Vorotet. The settlement is located on a smooth slope. The land area of the settlement along the line North-West-South-East is 100x200 m. Fragments of ceramics, bones of animals, pieces of burnt clay, and different stones, some of them with traces of processing, were found on the plowed surface. The settlement is multilayered. The ceramics of the Late Bronze Age prevail in the materials of the settlement. It is associated with Holercani-Hansca cultural group (12th – 10th century BCE), interim between the cultures of the early Hallstatt, and the Late Bronze Age.&#x0D; According to O.G. Levitskiy, Holercani-Hansca group fills the gap between the cultural formations of Pre-Babadag and Tămăoani type and Balta group of sites of the Late Bronze Age. In addition, Hallstatt horizon with prevailing incised ceramics, which can be conventionally called Tămăoani-Holercani-Balta, is distinguished. Chronological framework of this horizon according to analogues of Balta group and Tămăoani can be the end of the 12th – 10th century BCE. The closest analogues to this cultural formation could be the cultures of the Lower Danube region – Sihleanu, Tămăoani, Pre-Babadag, Babadag-I, and early Belozerka culture sites, including Balta group of the Late Bronze Age. The role of Chisinau-Corlateni type sites, of which Holercani-Hansca group had got a number of material borrowings while forming its cultural entity, is doubtless.

Local Pottery in the Lower Bug Region at the Early Stages of Urbanization

The purpose of the paper is to investigate the development of pottery in the Lower Bug region and its role in urbanization processes on the basis of historiographical, archaeological and paleogeographical data at the 6th century BCE.&#x0D; Scientific novelty. For the first time the ceramic production are comprehensively considered into account the raw material base of the pottery of the ancient settlement on the example of Borysthenes. The relationship between social and natural factors in the development of pottery has been established. The role of this craft in the context of urbanization processes in the North-Western Black Sea region is determined. The early production of ceramics in Lower Bug is considered, covering different categories of sources. A method of studying the local pottery making in the ancient centres of the region is proposed.&#x0D; Methodology. The study was based on a comprehensive analysis of historiographical and archaeological data and paleogeographical methods. The field stage of the research included the survey of sites with unsoddy deposits of various geological periods as potential pottery raw materials. A stratigraphic dissection of deposits, their macromorphological description and samples were taken from each sites for further laboratory research. The laboratory research included a micromorphological analysis of ceramic products to compare its characteristics with potential raw materials, as well as a granulometric analysis of the selected samples to determine their physicochemical properties.&#x0D; Conclusions. Pottery as an independent type of craft was distinguished in Hellenic culture quite early and came to the centres of the Northern Black Sea region as an already formed occupation. Spatially, workshops were situated at the large cities, where the manufactured products not only satisfied local demand, but also served as goods for sale. As archaeological materials showed, the earliest evidence of local pottery production was discovered on Berezan island and date from the middle of the 6th century BCE. The active development of the settlement, i.e. the intensification of the urbanization of the space, belongs around the same period. Therefore, the development of crafts, in particular pottery, is a component of this multifaceted process.&#x0D; Paleopedological studies, micromorphological and granulometric analyzes of potential pottery raw materials with the micromorphological features of ceramics allow us to talk about local production. It was found that craftsmen could use local raw materials to create the moulding mass, which was obviously multi-component. The materials mainly of the first half of the 6th century BCE from site “T” of Berezan settlement confirmed the assumption about the predominance of grey ceramics (“greyware”) in the local pottery making at that time. Probably, the tradition of its production existed for a long time.

An archaeomagnetic intensity-based search for order in the chaos of the destruction of Hama (Syria) dated to 720 BCE

Destruction layers of ancient settlements are extremely valuable for archaeomagnetic studies as they provide a particular archaeological context allowing for the analysis of ceramic fragments strongly linked to the date of destruction. However, when examining pottery for archaeomagnetic intensity, instead of considering a snapshot in time in the geomagnetic field record, we must also consider the various dates of their initial production, which can span several decades. This introduces an unknown time interval, which is typically shorter than the temporal resolution offered by pottery typology. In this study, we obtained new archaeomagnetic intensity data using the Triaxe protocol from 16 fragments (77 specimens) of different ceramics recovered from the destruction layer of Hama (Syria) dated to 720 BCE, caused by the troops of the Assyrian King Sargon II. The selected pottery consists of serving vessels, which are generally thought to have a short lifespan, all of which were found in royal or other important buildings. Our results reveal a significant scatter, ranging from ∼65 µT to ∼81 µT (average 74.2 ± 4.2 µT). We attribute this dispersion mainly to the time interval for the production of the pottery during the 8th century BCE, a period marked by rapid intensity fluctuations according to the currently available reference geomagnetic field intensity variation curve for the Near East. Using this curve, we show that the ceramics studied had been in use for at least 30 years at the time of the city’s destruction, a surprisingly long use-life for ceramics intended for everyday use. While we acknowledge a 30-years use-life as possible, we suggest that this minimum time interval could be a result of inaccuracies in the reference intensity variation curve during the 8th century BCE. Nevertheless, our study illustrates and confirms the ability of pottery from a destruction layer to trace rapid variations in geomagnetic field intensity. Furthermore, it establishes a chronological order of production date in ceramic assemblages found in an otherwise chaotic context.

E-DATABASEINFORMATION OF INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS AND ITS ACTIVE INGREDIENTS

India is a land of indigenous medicinal plants and diverse wildlife. Since ancient time, Indians are usingthese plants and their extracts as medicine for the treatment of human diseases, and termed as traditional medicine (TM). Ayurveda, an alternative TM system, is well known across the Indian subcontinent. The oldest manuscript on Ayurveda practice is SushrutaSamhitabySushruta,written in 6th century BCE. It emphasises the use of medicinal plants and its parts with healing properties for health practices. The phytochemicals of a medicinal plant encompasses essential oils, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, phenylpropanoids and waxes. These phytochemicals are synthesized by plants as secondary metabolites, but, have numerous industrial applications. Though, we have these ancient medical practicing systems, but their documentation, dosage, inhibitory concentrations, where-abouts and the origin of medicinal plants is still not up to date. Therefore, there is a need for a repository where all the information regarding the medicinal plants and its properties should be listed. Here, we are discussing all the comprehensive information regarding all these databases of indigenous medicinal plants, which will apprehend our knowledge and understanding about Indias vast diverse medicinal flora.

Looking at the Evidence of Local Jewelry Production in Scythia

This article considers finds from the Scythian monuments of the North Black Sea area that can be connected to local jewelry production from the 7th century to the end of the 4th century BCE. I wish to draw attention to the problem of prolonged bias in this area of study. The prominence of the famous masterpieces by West Asian artisans (Lyta Mohyla and Kelermes Kurgans) and of the Greco-Scythian goldwork from the North Pontic kurgans (Chortomlyk, Solokha, Tovsta Mohyla, etc.) invited the view that the vast majority of the gold objects that the Scythians used during their lifetime and later took into their graves were imported rather than locally produced. Instead of trying to consider all artifacts that could potentially be Scythian-made, my goal in this article is to review the direct archaeological evidence of local jewelry production in the form of punches, matrices, and recorded cases of workshops at Scythian settlements. Gathering this evidence, as I will argue, gives us compelling insight into the high level of Scythian goldsmithing from the beginning of Scythian culture in the 7th century BCE and its improvement and adaptation of new techniques in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, probably in the context of intensified cultural exchanges between Scythians and Greeks.

Perforated bone artifacts from Indor Khera and Rohana Khurd, Upper Ganga Plain, India

This paper presents a techno-functional analysis of two perforated bone artifacts recovered from Indor Khera and Rohana Khurd, North India, dated to c. 6th-2nd century BCE and 4th century BCE, respectively. These artifacts are made from bone walls of the unknown limb of medium/large-size mammals. Based on their morphology and parallels from archaeological sites of India, they have been identified as pendants and daggers. However, a close microscopic analysis of these artifacts tells a different story. The use-wears generated by threads around perforations contraindicate suspending (string-up) assumption. An experimental program has tested this by employing replicas of these artifacts as suspenders and fasteners. The result of this experiment and their comparison with archaeological ones suggest that these artifacts were probably used as fasteners rather than suspenders, thus challenging the conventional hypothesis that they were used as pendants. Apart from the functional aspects of these artifacts, the same experimental program was also used to understand the manufacturing process, i.e., the chaine operatoire.

The Pottery of Babylonian-period Jerusalem: Stratum 9/10 at the Summit of the Southeastern Hill

The 2005–2008 excavations conducted by Eilat Mazar in Area G at the Southeastern Hill (‘the Summit of the City of David’) included stratified dump layers on the eastern slope. Reevaluation of the pottery uncovered in the three layers of the dump designated by Mazar as Babylonian Stratum 9/10 show that it consisted mainly of Iron IIC types with a few later types and that while some of the new types became popular during the Early Persian period, others either did not become common or did not continue. This, then, is a transitional assemblage, representing the 6th century BCE, with Iron Age types appearing alongside new variants. About a quarter of the bowls recovered from Stratum 9/10 are ‘non-typical’ for Iron IIC types but are not typically Persian either. We therefore suggest that they be identified as ‘Babylonian types’.

Contempt, Withdrawal and Equanimity in the Zhuangzi

The Zhuangzi, a 4th century BCE Daoist text, is sceptical about the political culture of its time. Those who debated conceptions of a good life were hostile to the views of others. They were intolerant and at times contemptuous of others who did not embody their values. In contrast to such negativity, the Zhuangzi promotes equanimity. The equanimity of the sagely person is grounded in a balance she maintains between engagement and withdrawal. Engaging critically, she problematises the lack of diversity in their options for a good life. By withdrawing, she refuses to be party to the squabbles that perpetuate intolerance. The paper aims to show how equanimity is possible, thereby articulating a new angle on emotions in the Zhuangzi.

Trade, use, offer. The hoard of Bánov – “Skalky” (CZ)

Hoards disappeared from the regions of the “heart” of Hallstatt Europe. As for the peripheral areas, which include Moravia, the situation was different. The elite Hallstatt hoard from Bánov – “Skalky”, Uherské Hradiště District (CZ), dating to 575–550 BCE, proves that some regions did not abandon their “old Bronze-Age habits”. The hoard is among the most exclusive set of discoveries dating to the Hallstatt Period found in the Czech Republic. Its 1.500–2.000 pieces of amber beads represent the largest individual prehistoric set of amber in the Czech Republic. In the 6th century BCE, the eastern part of what is now the Czech Republic (Moravia) was the primary transit region of the Baltic amber to the Mediterranean. Extensive barter trade took place along the route of the Amber Road. Included in the Bánov hoard were exclusive women’s jewellery items which were evidently exchanged for amber. It is a set of dragon fibulae from contemporary Slovenia. This article describes the circumstances of the discovery, offers a detailed catalogue of the findings, introduces a chronological-typological analysis of the inventory and proposes the origin of the artefacts. An analysis of the composition and origin of glass by Scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) and of amber by IR spectrometry was carried out in this study. Chemical analysis of glass determined the colouring agents and the composition, which points to the possible origin of the analysed items. While amber corresponds to the Baltic spectrum, analysis of the glass revealed surprising findings. Most of the beads do not correspond to the expected natron glass type but to an older mixed alkali type. Furthermore, an overview of the deposition of hoards in Moravia and the methodology of studying the deposition is presented. A model of long-distance trade on the Amber Road and its chronological background are also outlined. The authors discuss the social structure, elites, long-distance trade on trade routes north of the East Hallstatt culture region, and the assumed ceremony surrounding the creation of hoards.

Trade with the West. Glass bowls of Eastern Mediterranean origin found in the courtyard of the Casas del Turuñuelo site (Guareña, Badajoz, Spain): Archaeological context, analysis and conservation

The aim of this work is presenting a group of glasses excavated from the archaeological site Casas del Turuñuelo (Guareña, Badajoz, Spain), whose destruction dates back to the 5th Century BCE. Different types of glasses were found, among them two thick-walled translucent bowls and a very fine blue-coloured bowl. The study and conservation of these pieces has made it possible to characterize the composition of the different types of glass and their specific degradation, and to identify the possible origin where they were manufactured, in the Eastern Mediterranean. In addition, it has managed to recover the original surface and shape of these pieces and has given them the necessary consistency to be well preserved and studied.