Late Chalcolithic Research Articles

Faunal Remains from the Late Chalcolithic, Late Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Periods at Yehud, Ashkenazi Market (pp. 1–22)

Faunal Remains from the Late Chalcolithic, Late Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Periods at Yehud, Ashkenazi Market (pp. 1–22)

The Late Chalcolithic Pottery and Ground Stone Assemblages from the Western Fringes of Tel Yehud (pp. 1–16)

The Late Chalcolithic Pottery and Ground Stone Assemblages from the Western Fringes of Tel Yehud (pp. 1–16)

Synchrotron XRF spectroscopy for reading salt-encrusted cuneiform tablets

Cuneiform tablets were a primary writing medium in the ancient Near East from the late fourth millennium BCE to the first century CE. Although these clay tablets were durable for daily use, prolonged burial over millennia has made them vulnerable to salt damage. Fluctuations in temperature and humidity cause the migration of salts to the surface of the tablets, damaging them and covering the inscriptions, making the text unreadable. Traditional preservation and restoration techniques, such as firing and tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) treatments, although effective in making the text legible again, cause irreversible physicochemical alterations, compromising the historical integrity of the tablets. To address this issue, we used synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence (SR-XRF) spectroscopy to analyze cuneiform tablets covered by salts. This method enabled the recovery of previously unreadable texts without altering the nature of the tablets. Our findings highlight the importance of non-invasive methods for preserving and studying cuneiform tablets, maintaining their physicochemical integrity, and allowing for future analyses.

‘Symbolically Overloaded’ Burials: Early Fourth-Millennium bc Hunter-Fisher-Gatherer Mortuary Practices from North-Eastern Europe

At the beginning of the fourth millennium bc, the Typical Comb Ware culture (TCW) emerged in north-eastern Europe. One of its characteristics is a wealth of ‘amber’ or ‘ochre’ graves and mortuary practices. This article concerns the graves’ key elements, their distribution and frequency, and their relationship to the TCW phenomenon. The analysis of seventy-seven graves from twenty-three sites suggests that TCW graves are a materialization of a complex set of practices in which visual aspects (colours, contrasts, and combinations of materials) and performance play significant roles. Given the small number and distribution of graves, these practices were reserved for particular people and/or occasions, and the tradition only lasted for a few centuries. Interpreted from the perspective of identity production and sociocultural networks, these graves and associated practices are defined as ‘symbolically overloaded’, with buried bodies and activities intended to be seen.

A Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Settlement at Peqi‘in, in Upper Galilee (Hebrew, pp. 1–12; English Summary, pp. 69*–70*)

A Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Settlement at Peqi‘in, in Upper Galilee (Hebrew, pp. 1–12; English Summary, pp. 69*–70*)

Ancient DNA reveals diverse community organizations in the 5th millennium BCE Carpathian Basin.

We present a comprehensive genetic investigation of Late Neolithic (LN) and Early Copper Age (ECA) populations living in the Carpathian Basin, leveraging whole genome data from 125 previously unreported individuals. Using population genetics, kinship analyses and the study of networks of identity-by-descent haplotype segment sharing, we elucidate the social and genetic dynamics of these communities between 4800-3900 cal BCE. Despite changes in settlement patterns, burial practices, and material culture, we document a high degree of genetic continuity. While one set of individuals we analyzed from a large community cemetery was genetically diverse, another site was more homogenous and closed, with numerous consanguineous relationships and evidence of patrilineality and patrilocality. These results document radically different kinship systems in contemporaneous ECA communities using similar material culture and living only about 100 km apart.

Dendroarchaeology at Lake Ohrid: Pine Tree-Ring Chronology and 5th Millennium BCE Palisades from the Pile-Dwelling Settlement of Lin 3, Albania

Dendroarchaeology at Lake Ohrid: Pine Tree-Ring Chronology and 5th Millennium BCE Palisades from the Pile-Dwelling Settlement of Lin 3, Albania

Aspects of the Late Eneolithic. Sălcuţa Culture Pottery (II)

Starting with the first half of the 20th century, many (sau a lot) archaeological sites have been discovered in the Lower Olt Valley, dated chronologically and culturally in the second half of the 5th millennium BC, in the Late Eneolithic, the Sălcuța culture. Detailed description of the main site, Sălcuța – Piscul Cornișorului, are available in the monograph published by Dumitru Berciu in 1961. Pottery is an element of material culture that is especially useful in establishing chronological and cultural data. Therefore, in this article were analyzed a number of 17 vessels (unpublished or less known) from a technological, morphological and stylistic point of view belonging to the Sălcuţa culture. The frequency of the forms and ornamentations within the major pottery form type categories provide additional evidence of a shared ceramic tradition at the large or small settlements in the Oltenia region. That’s why, we consider it necessary to present the repertoire of the Sălcuța-type settlements, providing an overview of the research history. We mention that the analyzed pottery comes from the archaeological collection of the Olt County Museum.

Funnel Beaker Culture settlement in Jasienica Sufczyńska Site 5 as an example of the eneolithic colonisation of the Przemyśl Foothills (Western Carpathians, SE Poland)

Until now, the question of the Eneolithic settlement of the Funnel Beaker Culture in the 4th millennium BC in the area of the Przemyśl Foothills (Western Carpathians, SE Poland) has not been studied in detail. This was due to the relatively limited state of the sources, which were mainly collected during field surveys. These investigations resulted in the discovery of a relevant settlement in Jasienica Sufczyńska Site 5. The various artefacts collected from its surface have been used to formulate puzzling hypotheses concerning the chronology and the relations of its inhabitants with outer territories. It has been, for instance, suggested that it may have developed earlier than 3700/3650 BC (or even about 3800-3700 BC). These intriguing opinions were the main reason for the excavations carried out in 2017. This invasive research has provided new data about the nature of the settlement. They revealed pottery and stone materials, and the remains of several features. In this paper, we present the results of macro- and microscopic analyses of these materials and discuss them in the context of the current state of research on the Funnel Beaker Culture in the Przemyśl Foothills and adjacent areas. Based on newly collected data, it is debatable whether to date this settlement can be dated as early as previously thought.

Animal exploitation in SW Iberian Peninsula during the Neolithic period: A Zooarchaeological perspective from Barranco do Xacafre (Ferreira do Alentejo, Portugal)

This study analyses the faunistic collection recovered at Barranco do Xacafre (Ferreira do Alentejo, Portugal). The intervention undertaken revealed two negative features interpreted as ditches, dating back to the second half of the 4th millennium BC (Late Neolithic). The main goal of this paper is to study the relationship between the Neolithic communities and animals from a sociocultural and economic perspective. In particular, it aims to understand the importance of domestication in relation to hunting activities and verify the use that was given to each species, as well as the strategies for exploitation of the carcasses and management of animal resources. The collection is composed mostly of mammalian fauna, where sheep and goat as well as cow and aurochs are the prevalent species, while pig, wild boar and dog are significantly less represented. Domestic and/or wild horse and cervids, namely red deer and roe deer are also significant. The malacological remains observed correspond to bivalves, such as the scallop, the clam, the mussel and the smooth clam. Fragments of undetermined passeriform birds were also identified. The results revealed a significant presence of wild but also domestic species, indicating exploitation strategies based on both hunting and pastoralism.

There and back again: local institutions, an Uruk expansion and the rejection of centralisation in the Sirwan/Upper Diyala region

During the fourth millennium BC, public institutions developed at several large settlements across greater Mesopotamia. These are widely acknowledged as the first cities and states, yet surprisingly little is known about their emergence, functioning and demise. Here, the authors present new evidence of public institutions at the site of Shakhi Kora in the lower Sirwan/upper Diyala river valley of north-east Iraq. A sequence of four Late Chalcolithic institutional households precedes population dispersal and the apparent regional rejection of centralised social forms of organisation that were not then revisited for almost 1500 years.

Gold and silver beads in the Maikop burial mound (Oshad): some aspects of a comprehensive study

Studies around the Maikop culture are one of the most popular topics today both in the Russian and foreign literature. Since the 1950s, search for reliable sites for dating has been resumed, especially concerning the materials of the Maikop burial mound (Oshad). The A.A. Iessen studies who suggested that chronology can be refined based on analysis of links with other cultures are of particular importance. However, in the 1970s — 1980s new sites discovered in Mesopotamia and Anatolia changed crucially the chronology of the sites, particularly due to calibrated radiocarbon 14C dates. It led to a dramatic shift in the time scale of the Copper Age cultures, which also affected the chronology of the Maikop culture. International conferences played a special role in popularisation of these materials, i.e. the conference ‘The Maikop Phenomenon in the Ancient History of the Caucasus and Eastern Europe’ held in 1991. Later on, our relations with foreign, first of all German, colleagues successfully developed. International conferences held in St. Petersburg in 2015 and Frankfurt am Main in 2018, and recent one organized by the Eurasian Department of the German Archaeological Institute in Georgia in 2022 and 2023 were of great importance. The result of this co-operation appeared to be the definition of the special status and significance of the Caucasus in the middle of the 4th millennium BC for the whole Eurasia. Nowadays detailed study of materials and their representation is of great importance. This article is focused on the analyses of gold and silver beads of the Maikop burial mound (Oshad) and similar items in the Caucasus and neighbou­ring territories. Over 6000 beads were divided into 17 groups. The most numerous are disc-shaped lamellar beads-“pucks”, which are the most widespread in other complexes. This allows sugges­ting series manufacturing of such jewellery.

Миграции в позднем неолите-энеолите Волго-Уралья: археология, хронология, климат

The Volga-Ural region draws attention of experts because of the Khvalynian Eneolithic spreading across this territory. Archaeologists consider autochthonous, migration and combined hypotheses for this culture. The findings of anthropological and paleogenetic analyses support the combined hypotheses. The components that comprise the basis of the Khvalynian tribes are determined in this region. The investigations in the field of natural sciences establish two components including the northern and southern hunters. Archaeologists face the problem of cultural attribution of these subjects. Analysis of ceramics and stone tools allow us to consider the following. Due to the deterioration of climatic conditions, the carriers of the earlier stage of Nizhnedonskaya culture moved to the Northern Cis-Caspian region. There is no evidence of cattle breeding among carriers of this culture. They possessed such innovations as comb ornamentation of wares, bifacial processing of heads and replaceable blade tool-making technique. Interaction with the local Late Neolithic (Tenteksor) culture led to the Cis-Caspian culture emerging in the last quarter of the 6th millennium BC. The substrate base is characterised with motifs and compositions of pottery ornamentation that will become typical for the migrants. There is no evidence of a production economy in the Tenteksor culture. In the Cis-Caspian culture, some early features of cattle breeding are found. Therefore, the Cis-Caspian culture people can be attributed as southern hunters. Driven by aridization, they moved to the border of the steppe and forest-steppe of the Low Volga region. Contacts between these tribes and the local Neolithic Srednevolzhskaya culture led to the Samarskaya culture forming. The superstrate component gave this culture vessels with collars, bifacial heads and their shapes, and replaceable blade stone tool-making technique. These tribes can be considered northern hunters. It needs to be taken into consideration that the Srednevolzhskaya culture goes back to the earlier Elshanka culture, therefore, this component has a stable local tradition. Caucasian elements in the Neolithic and Eneolithic materials are not found. The new data allow us to claim the climatic factors to drive the migration processes rather than the type of economy. The climatic conditions drove cultural groups in the Khvalynian culture period as well.

Early Neolithic bone, antler and teeth artefacts from the Rakushechny Yar site (based on the materials of new excavations)

The Rakushechny Yar site is a multi-layered stratified floodplain settlement, where the Early Neolithic complexes dated to the middle of the 6th millennium BC were uncovered. This article represents analysis of bone, antler and teeth items from the shore zone of the Rakushechny Yar settlement investigated by the State Hermitage Museum expedition, which date back to 5720–5520 BC. The studied collection includes 96 objects made of bones, teeth, antler of various animals, and tortoise shell. Long bones, mainly metapodia and ribs of small ruminants, as well as red deer and roe deer antler were used for items production. Technological, functio­nal analyses and the study of complexes of various layers were carried out. Two techniques for obtai­ning bone and antler blanks, as well as methods of their secondary processing were revealed. Several categories were identified including points with sharpened one or both ends, spatulas, knives, be­veled blade implements, including massive antler items with holes, implements from beaver jaws, and non-utilitarian items. Functional analysis allowed us to identify several areas of tools’ use: processing of hides (making holes), knitting and weaving from vegetable fibers, processing of wood and clay, preparation of fishery products. In addition, items made from roe deer antlers with specific traces of use were identified. This complex has a number of similarities with local Late Mesolithic and Early Neolithic sites of the Ponto-Caspian region. Analogies of the bone industry with the predominance of points made in combination of certain techniques, together with massive antler tools and pendants were revealed in the Early Neolithic Aratashen–Shulaveri–Shomutepe culture of the South Caucasus (Transcaucasia). The analyzed complex represents a set of items and functional categories that correspond to the specificity of the economic strategy of the site.

SPECIAL BUILDINGS AT NEOLITHIC GIRMELER, NEAR TLOS IN SOUTH‐WEST ANATOLIA

SummarySpecial buildings, or communal buildings, were ubiquitous in most Neolithic settlements in the Levant, Upper Mesopotamia, and Anatolia. Recently, remains of three special buildings with terrazzo floors dating to the early seventh millennium BC representing the Initial Neolithic period in west Anatolian chronology were unearthed in the basal layers of the mound located in front of the Girmeler cave in south‐west Anatolia. The terrazzo floors in these three special buildings feature traces of red‐painted linear and geometric decorations, while one also contains human burials. These special buildings may enhance our understanding of the symbolic and ritual behaviours of the Neolithic communities living on the south‐west fringes of Anatolia. They may have been gathering places for ritual activities that helped create social memories and define group identities, as well as strengthen intra‐ and inter‐societal relations among Neolithic groups. It is argued that the location of these special buildings adjacent to a natural hot spring before a cave with an impressive façade may have been one of the factors that eventually led Neolithic groups to form a gathering pattern here.

A Preliminary Survey of Rock Art and Early Powers in the Lower Nile Valley during the Late 4th Millennium bc

Abstract This paper is investigating the use of rock art by local/regional powers in the Lower Nile Valley in the late 4th millennium bc. It situates the rock art record in its historical and archaeological settings and proposes methodological options (which are, in some cases, still theoretical) to elucidate it further in its social context. Two research questions are addressed: the first one discusses the existence of rock art commissioned by authorities and the criteria that could help identify them. The second deals with the ways in which rock art may express political power. The iconographic and technical aspects of rock art are discussed. This preliminary survey suggests that rock art specialists appeared at the end of the Predynastic period and that rock art may have been a strategic element in the competition between the polities that were rising in the Lower Nile Valley at that time.

Combining Geo-Archaeology and Historical Nile Records to Understand Predynastic Settlement Patterns in the Region of the Nile’s First Cataract, Egypt

Abstract This paper aims to contribute new data to understanding early Predynastic settlement patterns in Egypt at the beginning of the state formation process in the 4th millennium bce. It focuses on the early settlements of the First Nile Cataract region. We employ three different datasets to address the issue retrieved from a recent archaeological investigation and drill coring and from Nile records available from archaeological and historical sources. The analysis is performed in a gis-based environment and through inundation modelling. Data suggest early Predynastic settlements at the First Cataract may have been settled all year round. They appear to be deliberately placed above the annual high flood level and have water resources for most of the year. The new geo-archaeological data further suggests that the average high inundation level for the early 4th millennium bce was similar to that documented for the end of the millennium.

Seals and signs: tracing the origins of writing in ancient South-west Asia

Administrative innovations in South-west Asia during the fourth millennium BC, including the cylinder seals that were rolled on the earliest clay tablets, laid the foundations for proto-cuneiform script, one of the first writing systems. Seals were rich in iconography, but little research has focused on the potential influence of specific motifs on the development of the sign-based proto-cuneiform script. Here, the authors identify symbolic precursors to fundamental proto-cuneiform signs among late pre-literate seal motifs that describe the transportation of vessels and textiles, highlighting the synergy of early systems of clay-based communication.

Esh-Shaheinab: The archetype of the Sudanese Neolithic, its premises and sequels.

Esh-Shaheinab is a landmark in the African Neolithic. This site gave the name Shaheinab Neolithic to the Neolithic period in central Sudan, becoming its archetype. Excavated in the late 1940s by A.J. Arkell, it bears witness to the processes of domestic animal introduction from the Middle East into North and East Africa. Its excavation also uncovered the remains of an earlier Mesolithic or Early Khartoum (ca. ninth-sixth millennia BC) and a Late Neolithic occupation (ca. fourth millennium BC), providing essential insights into the Neolithic's premises and sequels. Although the influence of Esh-Shaheinab has been recognized for more than seventy years, our knowledge of its material culture has remained as it was then. In 2001, one of the present authors (EAAG) had permission to restudy the ceramic collection at the National Museum in Khartoum and subsequently export samples for laboratory analyses. Here, for the first time, we provide a multi-scale analysis of the Esh-Shaheinab ceramic material from the Early Khartoum to the Late Neolithic periods by integrating the chaîne opératoire approach into the local landscape. By combining the results of macroscopic and microscopic analyses, we performed petrographic investigations on the composition and manufacturing technology of the ceramic pastes using polarized optical microscopy (POM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS). Organic residue analysis (ORA) was also carried out, to provide information on diet, vessel use, and subsistence practices. The results of our combined analyses showed that the inhabitants of Esh-Shaheinab developed an adaptation specific to the ecological niche they inhabited. They lived in the western valley of the Nile, which was narrower and offered different environmental conditions than the eastern bank. This resulted in partial continuity in manufacturing traditions and ceramic recipes, including more mixed wadi materials and a strong emphasis on wild meat consumption as the narrower alluvial plain restricted animal herding.

Историческая социология сельско-городского развития Дж. К. Скотта: против упрощений

This article is a critical analysis of the historical and sociological works of the American political anthropologist J. S. Scott (1936–2024). His works were largely related to the study of the contradictions of social development between the city and the village. This topic is presented especially deeply and comprehensively in Scott's monographs of his late intellectual period: ‘From the Point of View of the State’ (1998), ‘The Art of Being Ungovernable’ (2006), and ‘Against the Grain’ (2016). In these works, Scott analyzed—practically in retrospective order—several key rural-urban contradictions and paradoxes of social development from the era of high modernism of the 19th–20th centuries to the era of the emergence of the first city-states in the 6th millennium BC. Scott based his analysis on extensive regional comparative studies and interdisciplinary research at the intersection of history, sociology, anthropology, cultural studies, ecology, and political science. The problem of the formation, development, and expansion of state power in matters of regulating relations between city and countryside are core themes of these works. On the other hand—in matters of state-controlled relations between city and countryside—Scott highlights the influence of a third force, a third party: the so-called stateless, unsettled barbarism and anarchy that wedges itself into the regulation of rural-urban contradictions.