7th Century BC Research Articles

Using polygons to model maritime movement in antiquity

With a goal of understanding and visualizing the shifting concentrations of movement across the Mediterranean Sea on a centennial basis, the MISAMS (Modeling Inhabited Spaces of the Ancient Mediterranean Sea) Project developed a new GIS-based interpretive methodology that collates and superimposes a series of polygons to model densities of maritime activity in the Mediterranean Sea from the 7th century BC to the 7th century AD. After discussing the project's use of place, space, and maritime landscapes as a theoretical background, this paper explains this new methodology then demonstrates and tests results representing activity in the 1st-century BC western-Mediterranean basin. These results, apparently manifesting distinct socially-constructed places, suggest that this new approach creates new opportunities to understand the movement of people and goods across the Mediterranean in the past, and the varying uses and perceptions of maritime space in antiquity. As this method requires a dense and well-studied corpora of archaeological data, it is theoretically applicable to other maritime regions that have (or will have) the appropriate dataset, and may represent a new research agenda in maritime archaeology.

Revising the eclipse prediction scheme in the Antikythera mechanism

In 1901, an extraordinary ancient Greek artefact was discovered in a shipwreck just off the tiny island of Antikythera. It was later shown to be a complex astronomical calculating machine and is now known as the Antikythera Mechanism. In 2005, it was established that it predicted eclipses, using a 7th century BC Babylonian eclipse cycle of 223 lunar months, known as the Saros Cycle. Understanding the complex eclipse prediction scheme on the Antikythera Mechanism has resulted from a fascinating series of discoveries. The eclipse prediction scheme is implemented through descriptive glyphs, inscribed round a 223-month Saros Dial at the rear of the Mechanism: a glyph in a particular month indicates a predicted eclipse. A 2008 publication deciphered the meaning of the glyphs: they indicate whether the predicted eclipse is lunar or solar; the possible visibility of the eclipse; and its time of day. The glyphs also include an alphabetical Index Letter, referring to inscriptions round the Saros Dial, which describe eclipse characteristics. In that publication, the full eclipse prediction scheme was not understood but subsequent work in 2014 made substantial progress. The eclipse characteristics, such as the colour and magnitude of the eclipse, are listed together in the inscriptions, together with a group of Index Letters for the eclipses to which they apply. The deeply puzzling grouping and ordering of these Index Letter Groups was solved with a simple mathematical model, which both explained these groups and the distribution of the glyphs round the Saros Dial—revealing an eclipse prediction scheme of extraordinary sophistication and ambition. Later work in 2016 proposed a radical revision of this eclipse prediction scheme, though it did not challenge the mathematical basis of the scheme. The 2016 scheme implied a completely different picture of the whole of the back plate of the Antikythera Mechanism, destroying its essential mathematical symmetry. This revision is comprehensively refuted here, except for the identification of a new text character in one of the Index Letter Groups, which implies an interesting revision of the 2014 scheme but which preserves the elegant 2014 reconstruction of the back plate of the Antikythera Mechanism.

PARİON TİYATROSUN’DA BULUNAN GLADİATÖR GRAFFİTOLARI

Parion is one of the most important cities in Ancient Troad and it is in the territory of modern village of Kemer of Canakkale- Biga. The excavation began in 2005 at the necropolis. The surveys and excavations conducted during this time yielded important information about the settlement process of the ancient town. The findings from some public buildings and from the southern necropolis indicate that Parion was settled from the 7th century BC up to the 13th century AD. Parion’s theater was built on the west side of the bell tower, which we thought was the center of the city, very close to the Roman Baths, not far from the Agora and Odeion. Excavations at the theater of Parion were started in 2006 on the late period wall on the orchestra, followed by the stage podium, proscenium, cavea and the part of the orchestra. This article introduces gladiator graffiti in the theater. 5 gladiators carved on two large marble blocks and a face given from the left profile are the most important ones of these graffitis. These graffitis are of great importance in the Roman period, at the theater of Parion, showing that Gladiator fights were conducted at that time.

On the Time and Context of the Earliest Bronze Mirrors in the Northern Pontic Region

Attempts to push the Archaic Scythian culture back in time have led to a disagreement between archaeological and written sources relevant to the appearance of Scythians in the region north of the Black Sea. In the recent two decades, this event was moved from the late 7th century BC, as the documents suggest, to the mid-7th century BC. In this study, one of the chronological markers motivating this date is subjected to a critical revision. Based on new facts, the dates of “Scythian” and Greek mirrors found at Northern Pontic sites are analyzed. Importantly, both “Scythian” and Greek specimens were cultural innovations marking the migration of Scythians from eastern Eurasia and the Greek colonization of the area. Because the nomads lacked the skills required for manufacturing the “Scythian” mirrors, the tradition declined in the 5th century BC. The contacts between Scythians and people of the Northern Pontic forest-steppe zone and of the Greek colonies caused the change in the construction of the “Scythian” mirrors: instead of the central (“Scythian”) lug, a “Greek” side lug appeared, rendering the mirrors “Greek” in shape. It is concluded that replicas of Greek prototypes in the Northern Pontic region can serve as chronological indicators since we know the centers where these prototypes were manufactured––Corinth and Argos. Because Archaic Greek mirrors appeared in the 6th century BC, Scythian assemblages with such artifacts cannot be earlier.

Halmyris: Geoarchaeology of a fluvial harbour on the Danube Delta (Dobrogea, Romania)

In Northern Dobrogea, north of the Dunavăţ promontory, the Roman fortress of Halmyris was founded in the late 1st century AD on a Getic settlement dating to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, probably associated with a Greek emporium of the Classical and Hellenistic periods. At the time of the foundation of Halmyris, the Danube delta had already prograded several kilometres to the east leading to the progressive retreat of the sea and the formation of a deltaic plain characterised by numerous lakes and river channels. Here, we present the results of a multiproxy study combining sedimentology and palaeoecology to (1) understand the evolution of fluvial landscapes around Halmyris since ca. 8000 years BP and (2) identify the fluvial palaeoenvironments close to the city in Getic/Greek and Roman times, in order to locate and characterise the waterfront and the harbour. Our overriding objective was to improve understanding of human–environment relations in river delta settings. We demonstrate that Halmyris, protected by the Danubian floods due to its location on a palaeo-cliff top, had direct access to the river. A secondary channel of the Saint George, flowing north of the site, has been elucidated between the 7th century BC and the 7th century AD and could have been used as a natural harbour.

Byzantine Churches of Enez (Ainis) in Eastern Thrace

The ancient city of Ainos was built on the east coast of the Maritsa (Meriç) river, where the river joins the sea. The city is located on the west of ancient Lake Stentoris (today Gala Lake) and was established on the 7th century BC as a colony of the Aiolians. The excavations at Ainos proved that the city was continuously inhabited since Neolithic era. Ainos was connected in the north to Adrianopolis by sea and by overland route, in the east to Gallipolis and Constantinople and was situated in a very important location. In 148 BC the city was conquered by the Romans and during the Byzantine era it became the capital of the Rhodope region of the Europa province. The location of the city attests its importance as a major commercial center. Today the ancient city of Ainos is situated 3.5 km inside from the coast. Throughout the prehistoric ages, Ainos had two ports and the point that Meriç (Maritsa) River joins today the sea used to be a gulf. Ainos, the most important port city of Eastern Thrace, besides joining the Aegean Sea with the hinterland of Eastern Thrace, was situated at the end of the shortest and most secure road between the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea. During the middle ages the city preserved its importance and as it continued to unite the Aegean islands to Thrace, it was a significant commercial center. Ainos remained a major commercial center until the beginning of the 19th century

THE EARLIEST CERAMICS FROM BORYSTHENES (on materials from V. V. Lapin’s Excavations)

The paper examines the earliest materials from the excavations conducted by V. V. Lapin in Borysthenes (the settlement at Berezan Island). The collection is stored in the Scientific Repository, the Institute of Archaeology, the National Academy of Sciences, Ukraine. The earliest ceramic items belong mainly to oenochoes and kraters produced in Miletus. In accordance with the modern typology, these vessels belong to the group MilA Ib (after Käufler) or to the group SiA Ib (after Kerschner — Schlotzhauer) with the dating from the 650s to the very beginning of the 630s BC. Together with another famous imported vessels that were found at Borysthenes, f. e. Ionian cups of the early type and subgeometric scyphos, these vessels prove the time of its founding at the third quarter of the 7th century BC. Thus, the information by Eusebius (Euseb.Chron. can. / Helm B., 1984, p. 95b) becomes a proof on a basis of archaeological collection. Its number and quality allows speaking not about rare items, but about the import of mass materials in general. Moreover, the earliest Milesian import found at Borysthenes, permit to conclude that namely this emporion was used like a center of a transit trade with barbarian world. Milesian pottery in the earliest time-span appeared in Forest-steppe area, Eastern Taurica and Kuban estuary via Borysthenes.

(Re)sources: Origins of metals in Late Period Egypt

Metal trade and access to raw materials during the Late Bronze Age—roughly covering the New Kingdom in Egypt—have received substantial attention from past and present scholarship. Despite copper and lead remaining essential commodities afterwards, our knowledge about their supply during the Iron Age and later periods, in contrast, remains limited, even if it has improved recently. This paper presents the results of a pilot project investigating the possible sources of lead and copper available to Egypt during the Late Period (664–332 BCE), a period of intense contact and exchange between Egypt and the Mediterranean world.In the context of this research, a wide range of artefacts from Naukratis, a major cosmopolitan trading hub in the Western Nile Delta founded in the late 7th century BC, were analysed to determine their chemical composition and lead isotope ratios. They mostly consist of metal finds—including a crucible slag—but also some locally produced faience objects which used lead and copper to colour the glaze. Additional samples include metal objects and lead ores from Tell Dafana, a Late Period settlement in the Eastern Delta, and contemporary Egyptian or Egyptianizing bronzes from Cyprus.A total of 39 objects were analysed with a combination of lead isotope and elemental analysis, yielding surprising results for the likely origins of the copper. While Cyprus, an expected source for copper, is identified for one object, the copper deposits from Faynan or from northwestern Anatolia offer the best match for most finds, including those found in Cyprus.The lead analysed seems to originate from a variety of mines, particularly from Laurion in Attica, and mines in the northern Aegean and/or northwestern Anatolia, with one example possibly from a lead‑silver mine located in central Iran. The multiplicity of lead sources reflects the complexity of international trade in the Eastern Mediterranean at the time.The study offers a valuable insight into the trade networks of Egypt and, by extension, the whole of the ancient Mediterranean. A larger-scale project investigating objects from a wider range of sites in the Eastern Mediterranean world could revolutionize our understanding of metal trade and concomitant economic, political and social developments in the first millennium BC.

Pedasa Athena Kutsal Alanı Arkaik Dönem Fayans Adak Sunuları

The archaeological and epigraphical evidence obtained from surveys and excavations conducted in Pedasa, one of the Lelegian settlements located in the Halicarnassian Peninsula, revealed that the only sanctuary of the city was dedicated to the goddess Athena for the time being. The faience objects which form one of the remarkable groups among the imported votive offerings and ritual equipment belonging to 7th and 6th centuries BC shed light on the interregional and overseas connections of the sanctuary. The artefacts consisting of certain vases, amulets and beads are among the so-called “East Greek production” or “Greco Egyptian” and were produced by the middle of the 7th century and throughout the 6th century BC under the strong impacts of the Egyptian art. The double vases with kneeling figure within the Leopard Spot Group, Egyptianising style pyxis, New Year flasks, amulets and disc shaped beads were votive offerings, whose similar examples were documented in the contemporary sanctuaries and grave contexts in the Aegean and Mediterranean world. The shallow bowls with spool lug, most probably were one of the ritual tablewares used for certain ceremonies, are noteworthy by their form and distribution pattern. Apart from the example published from Timpone della Motta in Italy, these bowls have been documented in Athena Sanctuary in Pedasa, Aphrodite Temple in Miletus and Artemis Temple in Ephesus. Their paste and glaze features, different from the other Archaic Greek faience, imply unknow faience production center in Ionia, which has already been affirmed and has not been localized yet. Due to the distribution pattern, Ephesus was mentioned as a possible production center, but Miletus should be considered among the strongest candidates. The amulets, commonly believed to protect woman and child, represent the personal religious beliefs of the owners. The worshippers who dedicated these amulets were most likely the Carians who lived in the Nile Delta and were influenced by the Egyptian religious practices or their Egyptian originated wiwes or attendants. As it is well known, Carians together with Ionians served in the Psammetichus I’s (664-610 BC) troops in Nile Delta and the grave stelai, Carian inscriptions and masonry markings attested the Carian descending community in Egypt from the second half of the 7th century BC until the late 6th century BC.

Disruption in an alluvial landscape: Settlement and environment dynamics on the alluvium of the river Dyje at the Pohansko archaeological site (Czech Republic)

Floodplain alluvia can provide a combination of natural and anthropogenic evidence of environmental changes, allowing to directly examine their evolution in relation to settlement dynamics. Such evidence is recorded, for example, at the archaeological site Pohansko by the town of Břeclav, a former centre of the Great Moravian Empire. The aim of our research was to explore what conditions on the floodplain could have caused the abandonment of this environment. Special attention was paid to the climax of the floodplain's occupation during the times of the Great Moravian Empire (AD 836–906) and to the decline of its occupation in the following centuries. The environmental record at the Pohansko site starts in the 7th century BC. From the Iron Age onwards (Hallstatt and La Tène periods) there is evidence of non-agricultural human activities. Since the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC to at least the second half of the 10th century AD, there is no record of any floodplain aggradation or flooding at the site. Later, both the archaeological and palaeoecological records on the floodplain probably got exposed and redeposited. The result is a mechanically disturbed layer that is synchronous with soil horizons and subsequent Early Mediaeval cultural layers covering sandy elevations. For an unknown reason, the site was deserted for many centuries after the end of the 10th century AD. During the High Mediaeval period and the early Modern Era, especially since the 15th century AD, overbank deposits covered the floodplain. Intensified human impact in the river catchment and climate change during the Little Ice Age were the main triggers of this change. The results correlate with the written historical sources pertaining to this area, which speak about an increasing frequency of flooding in the Czech lands since the 14th century, and especially in the second half of the 16th century. As a result, these sites became unsuitable for settlement and abandoned.

Aphrodite Pandemos at Naukratis Revisited: The Goddess and her Civic Function in the Context of an Archaic Emporion

Aphrodite Pandemos (‘all the people’) is a curious character in Greek religious thought: distinguished from her older and loftier counterpart, Aphrodite Ourania (‘heavenly’), through her linkage to more ‘common’ forms of love, namely heterosexual union, she was also associated with civic cohesion and the semi-mythical origins of the Athenian city-state. Yet our earliest evidence for the worship of Aphrodite Pandemos comes not from Athens but from Naukratis – a settlement nestled in the Nile Delta, resulting from a joint endeavour by a number of Greek city-states in the late 7th century BC under the Saite pharaohs. Previous scholarly considerations of Aphrodite Pandemos at Naukratis downplayed her civic associations largely based on the ambiguous political status of Naukratis, and instead concentrated on her role as a type of ‘general access’ goddess to the mixed communities commonly found in trading settlements.

Frequency of dental caries in children in the Early Iron Age and the Medieval populations from Ukraine

In this paper we determine the caries frequency in children of the Early Iron Age (EIA) (the 9th – the 3d centuries BC) and the Medieval populations (the 8th – the beginning of the 15th century AD) from the Ukraine area, and compare the results with the data from several European populations who lived at the same time. The EIA is presented by 41 children skeletons, three of which were Cimmerian (the 9th – the 7th centuries BC) from the territory of contemporary Poltava region; 38 skulls from the territory of contemporary Poltava region and Crimea represented Scythian period (the 7th – the 3d centuries BC). Remains of 24 children from the Medieval populations were also examined, three of which were the ancient Hungarians from the Poltava region (the 8th – the 9th centuries AD), 6 Khazars from the Kharkiv region (the 8th – the 9th centuries), 1 child related the Old Rus culture from the Kyiv region (the 9th century), and 14 representatives of the nomadic populations in the Golden Horde period (the 13th – the beginning of the 15th century) from the Poltava and Zaporizhzhya regions. Taking in consideration the letter archaeobotanical studies we suggest that there were no major changes in the plants exploited during all the studied periods. The frequency of carious lesions in children from the Medieval populations (8.3% in individuals, 0.5% in deciduous teeth, and 0.4% in permanent teeth) is only slightly higher than those from the EIA period (2.4% in individuals and 0.2% in deciduous teeth). These indexes were not larger those of majority of European populations dated to the same historic period. Further isotopic, chemical and palaeobotanical studies of the additional sites, with sufficient sample sizes, allow us to learn so much more of the cariogenic factors in children of the past populations from the Ukraine area.

African Swine Fever (ASF) and Ticks. No Risk of Tick-mediated ASF Spread in Poland and Baltic States.

Infectious diseases of swine, particularly zoonoses, have had a significant influence on nutritional safety and availability of pig meat as high-energy protein product since the time that pigs were domesticated back in the 7th century BC. The main sources of swine infectious diseases include the so-called primary sources (direct infection, i.e. through contact with infected and sick animals) and secondary sources (contaminated meat products, slaughter products, and vectors, including ticks). At present, the most serious epidemiological and economic threat to swine breeding in Europe is African swine fever (ASF). This disease, originally coming from Africa, is incurable and causes death of infected pigs and wild boars during 7−10 days after infection. Among the various factors that influence the spread of ASF, important role is played by ticks from the genus Ornithodoros, mainly from the species Ornithodoros moubata. Research on the ASF indicates that other species of ticks can also transmit the virus to healthy pigs in laboratory conditions. Sylvatic and domestic cycles of ASF virus transmission, which have been described so far, require further studies and updating in order to point the potential new vectors in the Caucasus and Eastern Europe affected by the ASF. Effective methods of control and biosecurity may significantly slow down the spread of ASF, which undoubtedly is a major threat to world pig production and international swine trade.

Altars with Skulls at Tsaryna Stow at Bilske Settlement (to Ritual’s Sense)

The issue of ritual usage of human heads (skulls) in the altars discovered on the ashpits 1 and 3 at the Tsaryna stow at Great Bilske hill-fort is discussed in the paper. Five such objects were investigated. The most archaic altar is dated back to the 7th century BC (altar 1, ashpit 3) and the rest are dated by the 5th century BC (altar 2, ashpit 3; altar 3, ashpit 3; altar 2, ashpit 1; hole 6, ashpit 1). The essential difference between them lays in design features and placing of the skulls. In the archaic altar, two skulls were built into the basement of the structure which represented a clay cone. In later altars, which predominantly had a shape of a low hill constructed on subsoil, skulls were placed in the upper part of cultic objects. V.P. Belozor’s opinion that the archaic altar 1 could be a backbone object (a sanctuary?) at the ashpit 3 appears to be reasonable. This altar’s structure reminds the design of Agni altar in Agnicayana rite in which the head of a sacrificed person was placed in the structure’s basement. Proceeding from the fact that economic activity at this ashpit was closely connected with metallurgical production, the ritual itself, as well as in a case with the Indian equivalent, could be devoted to a cult of fire and have a similar semantic capacity.

Unveil the traces of ancient mining

Abstract The Archaeological Mines Park of San Silvestro is part of the Campiglia mining area. It represents its most important historical core. The Park covers a surface of around 450 hectares on the mountains Calvi, Rombolo, Poggio all’Aione and along the valleys Temperino, Lanzi and Manienti. The main characteristic of the Park is the richness of mining activity traces towards copper, lead and silver. The mining activity started during the 7th century BC with the Etruscan civilization and continued until 1979, when the last mine was closed. Many karst cavities of the Campiglia are “cave-mines’: they are the result of a natural event and the action of ancient miners, who searched metalliferous minerals. In Campiglia there are traces of hundreds of Etruscan, medieval and modern mining operations, tunnels from the 19th and 20th centuries. The aim of the Archaeological and Mining park of San Silvestro is to highlight historical landscape, the result of centuries of mining activities. Some of the buildings, originally used for productive and administrative purposes, have been restored to house exhibitions and services for visitors. The impressive ruins of the medieval village of San Silvestro and two of the modern mining tunnels, have been equipped for guided tours. The accessibility of ancient mining works is however still difficult and this represents a limit in the enhancement and protection of these sites. Speleologists, archaeologists and geologists will be involved in making a project to let everyone discover the most ancient underground mines. We have three main targets: (1) produce high quality pictures of the most interesting and impressive mining traces; (2) create 3D models useful for scientific and cultural purposes; (3) equip some of the ancient shafts with light structures to allow small groups to visit them. We will describe the morphological characteristics of one of these ancient mines, giving some advice for the production of high quality picture in this contest. We will also describe the technique used for the production of a 3D model and how to equip the mine for the visit of small groups of people.

TLOS VE SİLİFKE BULUNTULARI IŞIĞINDA KARTACA AMULETLERİ

In this study two formed double-faced female head pendants, one was obtained from the Tlos excavations and the other is already exhibited in Silifke Museum, were researched. The first pendant was founded from the stadium excavations in Tlos, one of the important cities in Lycia region. However, the other one, not known the exact findspot due to acquiring by buying, is a part of the archeological collection in Silifke Museum. Both of them have been made by rod-formed and pressing glass technics from dark blue glass. The frontal depicted female head with Egypt-wig, repeated on both the obverse and the reverse side, can be seen on them. The objects have been used as a pendant according to Silifke example, ending with a ring at the top. On the other hand, the examples without having a ring, can be suggested that they must have been used as a pin head because of the hole, which is slightly off center and continued through neck. Both examples have a characteristic of orient pendants with double-faced amulet groups, disappeared from a wide area due to Mediterranean trade. Moreover, the double-faced male pendant with moustache and beard as a version of female pendant is known. Up till now the most comprehensive study about double-faced male and female pendants has been done by Haevernick. In her study, she suggested that the origin of these pendants was Carthage, colonized by Phoenicians at the 9th century BC., and they should be dated to the 4th century BC. The double-faced pendants obtained from Egypt, Levant, West Anatolia, the shore of Black Sea, Greece, Sicily and Spain are a different version based on human-faced amulets in Phoenicians art at the 7th century BC. It is thought that these female pendants, having simple form without any goddess symbol, symbolize Tanit in Carthage religion while Astarte in Phoenicians religion. Consequently, the pendants researched within the scope of this paper have been used as amulets, protecting humans from evil other than just being ornamental objects. In terms of the dispersion area, these pendants have been mainly found in the coastal cities related with Mediterranean trade. Double faced female pendants from Tlos and Silifke are very important with regard to both the dispersion area and the variety of typology represented by 8 samples in Anatolia until now.

Omride Palatial Architecture as Symbol in Action: Between State Formation, Obliteration, and Heritage

Omride Palatial Architecture as Symbol in Action: Between State Formation, Obliteration, and Heritage

Городище Пикет – памятник переходного времени от бронзового века к железному Бийско-Катунского междуречья

This article summarizes the field survey of the Piket settlement located in the foothills of Altai. The conclusion is made about its history and cultural identity. Geophysical studies have shown the presence of the complex structure of the monument. The territory of the settlement has fixed architectural and planning development, the houses are designed in an upward direction on the slope, along the longitudinal axis of the monument; allocation is made of the land with dwellings outside the moat. Fortification of the object is represented by the ‘pit shaft' system and escarpment on the northern slope of the cape. Ornamental ceramic tradition of collection indicates that the monument belongs to the final stage of Bolsherechye culture of the transition time from Bronze to Iron (within Blizhneelbansky Stage) which corresponds to the 7th century BC. However, there are fixed elements characteristic for those in the early Iron Age. Design features of the studied structures show a relationship with both the Bronze Age and emerging traditions of the early Iron Age and have analogues among the monuments of the transition from the Bronze Age to the early Iron Age. Thus, it is stated that the period of the Picket settlement accounts for the final stage of the transition time from Bronze to Iron which is consistent with the results of radiocarbon dating.

Analysis of Charcoal and Wood from Czarnowko Site (Pomerania Region, Poland): 14C Dating Versus Relative Chronology Show Consistent Evidence of Wielbark Culture Presence

AbstractThis article presents the results of interdisciplinary analysis of samples from the Czarnówko archaeological site in northern Poland, reporting the first radiocarbon dates for the site in comparison with its relative chronology. The site is of high importance because of its scale and opulence of artifacts. It was used for over 900 yr, from the 7th century BC up to the 3rd century AD, by populations of different cultures (the Lusatian, Pomeranian, Oksywie, and Wielbark). Samples of charcoal, wood, and textile were collected from different features, most of them from burials. Charcoal was taken from cremation pits, while wood was sampled from coffins in skeletal burials. Among samples collected during archaeological excavations in 2008 and 2010, 20 were chosen for 14C dating and macro- and microscopic observations. Images taken using a scanning electron microscope revealed the microstructure and preservation level of the specimens. An emphasis was also placed on geomorphological and geological research of the site area to gain information about the environmental conditions influencing the samples’ preservation state, e.g. pH, type, origin and permeability of sediment, and accumulation of organic matter. The obtained calibrated 14C ages are in agreement with the relative chronology based on the typology of artifacts and stratigraphic site reconstructions.

Neuroprotective properties of dietary saffron: more than just a chemical scavenger?

Neuroprotective properties of dietary saffron: more than just a chemical scavenger?