4th Century AD Research Articles

The Cause of Kidney Stone Formation and Treatment from the Perspective of Conventional and Traditional Persian Medicine

Urinary stone disease is the most common urinary tract disease that has caused human suffering since ancient times. The observation of a 7000-year-old bladder stone in an Egyptian skeleton proves this claim. This disease causes many complications for patients, but its pathogenesis is unclear. The knowledge about the cause of urinary stones formation and treatment recommendations from ancient physicians' perspectives is probably helpful in preventing and treating kidney stones. Data for this review were provided by search in five Traditional Persian sources available, including Canon of Medicine (Avicenna, 980-1037 AD), Kamil al–Sana al-Tibbiya (Majusi Ahwazi (Haly Abbas), died 982-994), Zakhire Kharazmshahi (Jorjani, 1042-1137 AD), Makhzan al Adviyeh (Mohammad Hossein Aghili Khorasani Shirazi in 18th AD), and Tib-e-Akbari (Mohammad Akbar Arzani-11th and 12th centuries AD) and Until January of 2023, all English publications in Science Direct, PubMed, Google Scholar and Scopus, using various search terms such as urolithiasis, lithiasis, and kidney stone. Some dietary recommendations in Traditional Persian Medicine (TPM) for treatment of urinary tract stones and 134 recommended plant species, in addition to studies of in vivo effects of some of them in conventional medicine have been described in this article. The TPM with long experience and special principles has good potential in the field of diagnosis and treatment in its own way and can act as a strong complementary treatment system for diseases that have challenging treatment. It seems using the experiences in the TPM sources and relying on today's knowledge can create a way to prevent the formation and recurrence of urinary tract stones.

Abu-Sahl al-Masihi (960-1010 AD) and His Description of the Heart

Since the Old Testament era, medicine has drawn scientists from around the world. Persian physicians have played an undeniable role in the advancement of medicine worldwide and their books have been taught as medical textbooks in the East and the West for years. In the Islamic Golden Age (9th to 12th century AD), Abu-Sahl al-Masihi (960-1010 AD), was one of the great Persian scholars contemporary to Avicenna and Al-Biruni. He wrote several valuable works on medicine, philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy in Arabic. The two books titled Al-Mia fil-Tibb (Book of the Hundred [on Medicine]) and Ezhar al-Hekmat Allah Ta’ala fi Khalgh al-Ensan (Manifestations of God’s Wisdom in the Creation of Mankind) also known as Tashrih Badan al-Ensan (Human Anatomy) are among his important works in medicine. Particularly, in Tashrih Badan al-Ensan, Abu-Sahl detailed the structure and function of each organ within the human body. On heart anatomy, he presented interesting, and even innovative views. Despite the significance of his views on medicine among physicians of the Islamic era, his works have failed to be translated into Latin or other languages for unknown reasons, leaving him veiled in academic spheres. This paper aims to describe Abu-Sahl al-Masihi's opinions on heart anatomy.

Demographic Systems of Medieval Italy (6th–15th century AD)

AbstractIn this article, we bring together a variety of studies, both old and new, to examine continuity and change in population dynamics in Italy during the medieval millennium (476–1492 AD). Though the available data are often sporadic and should be interpreted with great caution, it is possible to clarify certain dynamics, which can be useful for guiding future research. First, population fluctuations were not impacted by migration into or out of Italy. Second, medieval Italy was characterized by a high‐pressure demographic regime: e0 was around 20 years, with high adult mortality, and the birth rate was around 50 per mill. Third, despite high mortality, the Italian population grew (+50 percent) from the ninth century to 1347, mainly—but not exclusively—due to the absence of plague. Fourth, the stagnant population of the periods between the sixth and the eighth centuries and the 14th and 16th centuries was determined by the recurrent outbreaks of plague. Fifth, the population stagnation during the first and the last medieval centuries is also partly related to the increase in age at first marriage, while the demographic growth between the ninth and mid‐14th century is possibly connected to the decrease in age at first marriage among women. Sixth, the vitality of the medieval Italian population was partly ensured by a high rate of remarriage among widows. Seventh, data on statures show that mortality levels were determined by epidemic factors, rather than living standards. Finally, when the plague ceased in Europe in the middle of the Early Modern Age, adult survival was significantly higher than in the ancient and medieval centuries, despite the fact that neither hygienic‐sanitary nor epidemiological conditions, and certainly not nutrition, were better than in the centuries preceding the Black Death.

Shrouded in history: Unveiling the ways of life of an early Muslim population in Santarém, Portugal (8th- 10th century AD).

In around 716 AD, the city of Santarém, Portugal, was conquered by the Berber and Arab armies that swept the Iberian Peninsula and went on to rule the region until the 12th century. Archaeological excavations in 2007/08 discovered an Islamic necropolis (Avenida 5 de Outubro #2-8) that appears to contain the remains of an early Muslim population in Santarém (8th- 10th century). In this study, skeletal material from 58 adult individuals was analysed for stable carbon (δ13Ccol; δ13Cap), nitrogen (δ15N) and sulphur (δ34S) isotope ratios in bones, and stable oxygen (δ18O), carbon (δ13Cen) and radiogenic strontium (87Sr/86Sr) isotopes in tooth enamel. The results of this study revealed a dietary pattern of predominantly C3-plant and domestic C3-fed herbivore consumption during adulthood (δ13Ccol and δ15N, respectively) but a higher proportion of C4-plant input during childhood (δ13Cen) for some individuals-interpreted as possible childhood consumption of millet porridge, a common practice in North Africa-in those with unorthodox burial types (Groups 1 and 2) that was not practiced in the individuals with canonical burials (Group 3). In this first mobility study of a medieval Muslim population in Portugal, δ18ODW values revealed greater heterogeneity in Groups 1 and 2, consistent with diverse origins, some in more humid regions than Santarém when compared to regional precipitation δ18O data, contrasting the more homogenous Group 3, consistent with the local precipitation δ18O range. Ancient DNA analysis conducted on three individuals revealed maternal (mtDNA) and paternal (Y-chromosome) lineages compatible with a North African origin for (at least) some of the individuals. Additionally, mobility of females in this population was higher than males, potentially resulting from a patrilocal social system, practiced in Berber and Arab communities. These results serve to offer a more detailed insight into the ancestry and cultural practices of early Muslim populations in Iberia.

SACRED ARCHITECTURE OF BUDDHISM AND SHINTO BEFORE THE BEGINNING OF ACTIVE CULTURAL INTERACTION BETWEEN CHINA AND JAPAN

The paper examines the sacred buildings of Chinese Buddhism and Japanese Shinto with the aim of identifying their characteristic features and differences prior to the onset of the active influence of Chinese civilization on Japan. The analysis is conducted in the aspect of the fundamental differences in the worldview between the Buddhist religious doctrine and the animistic beliefs of Shinto. Two authentic objects from both religious streams were chosen as examples: the monastery complex of the Foguang Temple (Shanxi Province, China), built in 857 AD, and the complex of the Ise Shrine (Mie Prefecture, Japan), constructed at different estimates from the 3rd to the 6th century AD. The Foguang Temple complex is characterized by a clear planning structure, imagery in compositional details, and discreteness in relation to the surrounding environment, as, according to Buddhist teachings, the surrounding world is a place of the soul's suffering. In the planning structure of the Ise Shrine complex, features of regular planning are only partially present, the imagery of the elements of the complex is not unambiguous, and a general characteristic is the synthesis with the surrounding environment, which, according to the nature of animistic worldview, is inherently sacred. The identified features have been reduced to several basic design principles that largely characterize the specified religious streams and, as a result, form the main difference in their architecture.

Talocalcaneal coalition in the female adult skeleton from the archaeological site of Perlek-Dioksid, Serbia (10th - 12th centuries AD)

In this case report, we will present a case of rare pathological condition, a talocalcaneal coalition, which was recorded in a female adult individual from the archaeological site of Perlek-Dioksid, dated in the period between 10th and 12th centuries AD. During the bioanthropological and paleopathological analyses it was noted the presence of a bilateral bony fusion of the calcaneus and talus of a female adult individual, suggesting an occurrence of talocalcaneal coalition. This was further confirmed by an X-ray examination. Talocalcaneal coalition (TC) occurs when adjacent tarsal bones, the calcaneus and talus, are partially or completely fused. A talocalcaneal coalition becomes symptomatic when, at the age of 12 to 15 years, a pre-existing coalition becomes ossified. In this case, TC was accompanied by degenerative changes of the spine and bilateral femoral neck anteversion. This condition did not require any form of health-related care for this person, although it probably caused occasional pain of varying intensity. This pathological condition is rarely described in bioarchaeological literature and it is, therefore, important to report every recorded case in order to improve our corpus of knowledge regarding such conditions.

Analysis of Pigments Unearthed from the Yungang Grottoes Archaeological Excavations

The Yungang Grottoes, excavated during the 5th to 6th centuries AD, stand as a pinnacle of Buddhist sculpture, representing a precious world cultural heritage. Since their excavation, the grottoes have undergone multiple phases of painting, with a significant amount of pigment still present on the surfaces of the stone carvings. Since the 1990s, two large-scale archaeological excavations have been conducted on both the front ground and the summit of Yungang Grottoes. During these excavations, various artifacts with accompanying pigments were unearthed, encompassing stone carvings, grinding tools, architectural components, fragments of murals, and remnants of clay sculptures, spanning the historical periods of the Northern Wei, Liao-Jin, and Ming-Qing dynasties. Using portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, portable microscopy, polarizing microscopy, scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and confocal Raman microscopy, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of these painted elements. The investigation revealed the presence of hematite, vermilion, goethite, malachite, calcium carbonate, lead white, and ivory black pigments in the Northern Wei samples. The Liao-Jin samples exhibited hematite, while the Ming-Qing samples contained vermilion, minium, atacamite, lead white, and Prussian blue.

A Deeper Look at the Origin and Evolution of the Social Work Profession

This article explores how social work has changed from its beginnings to the early 21st century in India, Europe, the United Kingdom and the United States. It emphasises the significance of understanding social work's past to consider the field's potential future. The researchers used a qualitative research method and gathered information from existing literature, knowledgeable persons, and field visits for observation and verification to validate the collected data. Almshouses, or choultries, in India, can trace their origins back to the time of Buddha. Records from the Chinese travellers Fa-Hien and Xuanzang reveal that similar hospitals/Buddha Vihars existed in India around 400 BC. From the 7th century AD, the temples served food to devotees through 'temple kitchens. These institutions paved the way for almshouses in China, the Middle East, Europe, and Britain, signifying that Social Work's groundwork in India predates the Charity Organisation Society and the Settlement House Movement. Available records also reveal how the British Poor Laws systematised welfare services and played an important role in turning them into rights for the poor. Although social work, both as a career and as a way of living, evolved in India, countless books on social work published over the decades did not explicitly mention it as such.

KARAKTER GURU ISLAM DAN BARAT (Analisis Komparatif Pemikiran Imam az-Zarnuji Dan John Dewey)

This research aims to conduct a comparative analysis of the character of teachers in Islam and the West through the thoughts of Imam az-Zarnuji and John Dewey. Imam az-Zarnuji was an Islamic scholar and educator who lived in the 12th century AD, while John Dewey was a Western philosopher and educator who lived in the early 20th century AD. These two figures have different views on education, but both have made significant contributions to the development of educational thought. This study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach to analyze Imam az-Zarnuji and John Dewey's views on teacher character in the context of Islamic and Western education. Through analysis of the texts by these two figures, we identify similarities and differences in their conceptions of the characteristics and role of a teacher. The research results show that Imam az-Zarnuji emphasized the importance of diversity in the characteristics of a teacher, including wisdom, patience and religious exemplification. Meanwhile, John Dewey emphasized the importance of direct experience and a scientific approach to teaching, as well as the role of the teacher as a facilitator of learning. From this analysis, it can be concluded that although there are differences in cultural context and thought, the concept of teacher character in Islam and the West has striking points of similarity, such as the importance of morality, wisdom, and dedication in teaching. However, practical approaches and learning methodologies may vary according to individual cultural and philosophical contexts. It is hoped that this study will provide deeper insight into the character of teachers in Islam and the West, as well as contribute to the development of cross-cultural and inter-religious education. In addition, this research also provides a foundation for a better understanding of the principles underlying educational practices in various global contexts

The Ancient Metal Miners of Vadnagar, Delwara and Mandli, Western India

Abstract India is dotted with myriads of ancient metal mines or old workings in almost all the states, some of which have great antiquity (>4,000 yrs) and reaching considerable depth (upto 260 m). These stand as testimony to the mining skill of our ancestors, especially in the absence of mining tools. Several of these old metal mines, when explored by modern methods have yielded sizable deposits e.g. Hutti, Bhukia (gold), Rajpura-Dariba (multi-metal), Agucha (lead-zinc-silver), Agnigundala (lead-copper), Khetri (copper), etc. A few ancient Indian treatises describe the processes of metal extraction from the ores but records are scanty on the methods of mining and mining communities. Most experts consider that, the history of mining in India is obscured in the mist of antiquity and opine that ‘we lack the knowledge of old miners of India, as to who they were, from where they came or what was their fate’. The trailblazers though did not leave direct records nevertheless the opportunity is not closed to reconstruct missing pages related to ancient metal miners in the history of mining in India. An attempt has been made in this paper to bring out details of these miners based on comprehensive study and analysis of archaeological, geological, ancient metallurgical, historical, etymological and modern age data in conjunction with locals in the field, especially on those who were active in mining in border areas of present Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan in western India. It resulted in establishing the people of Vadnagar, Delwara and Mandli localities as expert miners, who were responsible for opening and operating a large number of mines in the region viz. Ambaji, Bhukia, Delwara, Khandia, Zawar, etc. Archaeological evidences and radiocarbon dates attest to a Chalcolithic to pre-historical period of some of these old mines. Nomenclature of some gold bearing rivers and gold mining localities in the country displaying Vedic gold names speaks for their antiquity. Mauryans (321-185 BC) accelerated metal mining in their empire, which was followed by other dynasties till Rajputs who were assisted by tribal Bhils. The knowhow of ancient metal miners of Vadnagar, Delwara and Mandli seems to have descended from Mahabharata and Harappan tradition of Gujarat (3950-900 BC) and Ahar-Banas (3600-1800 BC) culture of Rajasthan. During Mughal invasions many miners and metal workers had migrated to remote Himalayan areas (present Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand) or Hindu kingdoms (present Maharashtra, Odisha) where they adopted nomenclature of their place of origin (Vadnagar, Delwara and Mandli) to their new settlements. Some of these experts took-up mining profession while others developed expertise as blacksmiths/ whitesmiths or even agriculturists. Zinc coins of Kangra (14th Century AD) kings seem to have produced by these migrating metal experts who knew the technique of zinc distillation from ore of Zawar mines, the people of which are considered as first to smelt Industrial zinc in the world.

HORIZONTAL WATERMILL CHRONOLOGIES BASED ON 14C DATING OF ORGANICS IN MORTARS: A CASE STUDY FROM JARASH, JORDAN

ABSTRACTHorizontal watermills in the southern Levant have proved difficult to date. This study investigates the use of radiocarbon (14C) dating of various organic carbon fractions in structural mortars and carbonate deposits to identify terminus post quem (TPQ) construction dates for seven arubah watermills and two chute watermills in northern Jordan. Dating results from the various organic fractions are discussed in the contexts of carbon fraction integrity and mortar type. The arubah watermill construction dates fall into two chronological groups. Four arubah watermills have Middle Islamic (late 12th to early 14th century AD) construction dates based on macrocharcoal and bulk organic fraction ages, whereas the bulk organic fraction ages of two earlier arubah watermills straddle the Byzantine-Early Islamic transition. Their possible fifth to seventh-century construction dates are among the earliest in the southern Levant. Limited 14C data from the chute water mills suggests that the earliest may date to the sixth–seventh century period, concurrent with the older arubah watermills. The study supports the viability of the AMS 14C method to provide estimated TPQ construction dates for watermills, providing caution is exercised. Short-lived macrocharcoals have the highest integrity but are subject to severe sample loss during pretreatment. 14C ages from humic and humin fractions in earthen mortars are influenced by “old carbon” contamination, possibly a soil reservoir effect, and are centuries older than the probable construction date. Attention is drawn to the potential use of arubah carbonate deposits as proxy records of water flow, watermill use, and hydroclimate.

Terrestrial cultural landscapes changed inshore marine ecosystems: Eight centuries of shellfish harvesting from the Kawela Mound site, Hawaiian Islands

Through unfamiliar and at times marginal environments, successful colonisation of the Pacific Islands relied upon the introduction of domesticated flora and fauna as well as widespread burning to reduce forests and lowland vegetation for agricultural production. These transformations led to the extinction of avifauna, the reduction of forests, and extensive slope erosion and sedimentation into valleys and along shorelines. To date, most attention has been paid to human-induced changes to the terrestrial landscape. In this paper we present the archaeomalacological results from the deeply stratified coastal Kawela Mound, one of the oldest habitation sites in the Hawaiian Islands, with occupation beginning during the 12th century AD. We describe how anthropogenic change of the terrestrial landscape caused sediment run-off, increased shoreline turbidity, and progradation of the adjacent shoreline altering marine habitats, which is recorded in the diversity, size, and habitat preference of food shellfish harvested over nearly eight centuries. The construction of ancient stone-walled fishponds along the littoral shore provided an artificial rocky habitat for shellfish otherwise uncommon along the sandy coast. Consequently, AMS dated layers containing these shellfish provide an indirect avenue for determining the chronology of stone-walled fishponds, the construction of which was directed under the aegis of elites and thus one of the hallmarks of increasing social complexity during the last two centuries before Contact in the late 18th century.

Porotic hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia in samples from the Late Hillfort Period sites at Dětkovice - Za zahradama (district Prostějov) and Vídeňská street (district Brno), Czech Republic.

Porotic hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia are pathological changes occurring on the human skull. These changes were observed and evaluated on skeletal remains from Dětkovice - Za zahradama and Vídeňská Street in Brno; both sites are dated back to the 10th to 12th centuries AD. A total of 605 subjects were assessed for age, sex, and the above-stated pathologies using standard methods. The influence of age and sex on the occurrence of these pathologies was examined statistically. Results indicated that at the site of Dětkovice - Za zahradama, porotic hyperostosis, and cribra orbitalia do not depend on sex or age. However, at Vídeňská Street in Brno, these pathologies do not depend on sex, but they depend on age so a higher incidence of pathologies in juveniles is observed. Differences between both sites could be caused by different numbers of evaluated individuals or different state of preservation of skeletal remains. The aetiology of the origin of these pathologies could not be determined by the methodology used here, but with the prevailing lower age of pathological subjects, a lack of nutrition with consequent absence of iron and developing anaemia might be the cause. Based on our statistical data, we can observe that the pathologies we studied occur more frequently in children older than newborns and younger infants. This may indicate that these studied pathologies arise only during the lifetime of the individual and do not have a prenatal occurrence.

Divide et Impera in the Banten Sultanate: The Political Succession of Sultan Haji and VOC's Pepper Monopoly in the 17th and 18th Centuries

Nusantara's spice commodities became one of the determining factors of the global spice trade in the 17th and 18th centuries. There were three types of superior spices produced by the Nusantara such as cloves, nutmeg, and pepper. In the 17th century AD, Banten Sultanate was known as a pepper producer, and its pepper trade significantly influenced the economic and political development of the region. Apart from improving the economy, this commodity was also used to establish diplomatic relations between foreign nations. However, the pepper trade also became one of the factors that caused conflict in the Banten Sultanate. The implementation of the divide et impera strategy by the VOC caused an internal conflict between Sultan Haji and Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa. The conflict occurred when Sultan Haji allied with the VOC to succeed his father, Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa. Sultan Haji made an agreement with the VOC in 1684, allowing the company to monopolize the pepper trade. This research examines this issue by looking at the overall condition of the pepper trade before and after the VOC's presence in the Banten Sultanate and the succession of Sultan Haji through the 1684 pepper trade agreement. This qualitative research uses historical research methods with a political approach. The theory used in this research is political economy theory, which includes understanding power, economic system, and public policy. The historical research method comprises heuristics, verification, interpretation, and historiography stages. The analysis using a political approach reveals the extent to which the Banten Sultanate's pepper trade policy influenced the succession of Sultan Haji and the monopolization of the pepper trade by the VOC.

A Deeper Look at the Origin and Evolution of the Social Work Profession

The purpose of this article is to examine how social work has changed from its beginnings to the early 21st century in India, Europe, the United Kingdom and the United States. It emphasises the significance of understanding social work's past in order to consider the field's potential futures. Qualitative research methods were utilised, and information was gathered from existing literature, informants, and through field visits for observation and verification to validate the collected data. Almshouses, or choultries, in India, can trace their origins back to the time of Buddha. Records from the Chinese traveller Fa-Hien reveals similar hospitals in India around 400 BCE. From the 7th century AD, the temples served food to devotees through 'temple kitchens. These institutions paved the way for almshouses in China, the Middle East, Europe, and Britain, signifying that the groundwork for Social Work as a profession in India predates the Charity Organisation Society and the Settlement House Movement. Although Social Work, both as a career and as a way of living, evolved in India, they were not explicitly mentioned as such in the countless books on Social Work that have been published over the decades.

Genealogy of the Raja Alam Pagaruyung Dynasty in Kitab Salasilah Rajo-Rajo di Minangkabau (1336-1825)

Studies on the history and genealogy of the Raja Alam Pagaruyung are still limited, one of the reasons is the lack of written sources. Previous studies have only revealed several kings in Pagaruyung, such as Adityawarman (14th century AD), Sultan Ahmadsyah, and Gagar Alam (17th - 18th century AD). Therefore, this study aimed to explain the history and genealogy of the Raja Alam Pagaruyung from the 14th century to the 19th century AD. This study used historical research methods: heuristics, source criticism, interpretation, and historical writing. The two main sources are a photocopy and the translation book of Kitab Salasilah Rajo-Rajo di Minangkabau manuscript. The results of this study showed that the Raja Alam Pagaruyung Dynasty was the descendant of previous king dynasties, namely the dynasty of kings in Bukit Siguntang (Palembang), Sumpur Sireno Puro, Malayu Tapi Air Jambi, and Ranah Tiga Laras (Dharmasraya). The existence of Raja Alam is related to Dewang Palakama Raja Indra Dewawana (Adityawarman) as Raja Undang in the Rajo Tigo Selo concept (1336-1376). Later, the term Raja Undang was changed to Raja Alam by Dewang Pandan Putowano as the fourth king (1420 – 1457). The first 12 Kings of Alam Pagaruyung reigned at Balai Gudam, but since the Yamtuan Bakilap Alam period (1543), they moved to Balai Janggo.

The Minangkabau Traditional Architecture on the Roof of the Rao Rao Mosque in the 20th Century AD

The Rao Rao Mosque in Tanah Datar, West Sumatra is an ancient mosque built in the early 20th century AD. The roof of this mosque is gonjong, a roof shape commonly found in Minangkabau traditional buildings, both rumah gadang (traditional house) and balai adat (traditional halls). The shape of the roof is different from the shape of mosque roofs in general, both in Minangkabau and other Islamic countries. This research aims to analyze the influence of traditional Minangkabau architecture on the roof of the Rao Rao Mosque along with its meaning. This research was carried out within the framework of case study research. Physically, the roof of the Rao Rao Mosque is clearly influenced by the roofs of traditional Minangkabau buildings. The use of this roof shape also has a philosophical meaning related to the traditional philosophy and life of the Minangkabaunesse. Apart from that, the Rao Rao Mosque keeps a cultural track record of the Minangkabau people at the beginning of the 20th century which is stored in the form of values in its architecture.

Islamic Scholars’ Influence on Western Scientific Discourse During the Medieval Era

This study explores the substantial influence of Muslim scholars on the intellectual progress of Western society during the Medieval Era. By examining the dynamic relationship between Arab-Islam and European-Christianity, this research emphasizes the significant impact of Muslim scholars in various fields such as philosophy, science, astronomy, art, and literature. Utilizing historical methods, the study uncovers how Islam played a crucial role in shaping the development of scientific discourses in the West since the 11th century. Toledo and Sicily functioned as pathways for the Latinization of Arabic texts, extending initiatives from the Abbasid Caliphate period in the 8th century AD, particularly the translation of Greek texts into Arabic. Emphasizing the collaborative role between Islamic and Western civilizations, this research underscores that amid the historical realities of Islamic-Christian tension and conflict that marked the Middle Ages, interfaith interaction and cooperation could foster scientific progress. In this context, Islamic influence emerges as a key factor in comprehending the reciprocal exchange of ideas and knowledge that simultaneously moulded these two cultures.

Fiqh-Sufistic: Orthodoxy of Islamic Education in Minangkabau

The findings of this study reveal that Islamic Education in Minangkabau is heavily influenced by the Islamic Orthodoxy style, which is deeply rooted in classical Arabic texts referred to as the Kitab kuning intellectual tradition. This style of orthodoxy encompasses various fields of knowledge, including theology, jurisprudence (fiqh), and tasawuf (Tarekat Mu’tabarah). The establishment of surau as an Islamic Education Institution in the 18th century AD is historically linked to this style of orthodoxy, which has persisted as the mainstream scientific tradition in madrasas and pesantren in Minangkabau even into the 21st century AD. Notably, through its adherence to Islamic orthodoxy, pesantren education is crucial in fostering religious moderation in Minangkabau. This study employs qualitative methods with historical and phenomenological approaches to analyze the historical documents and phenomena of pesantren in Minangkabau. Data collection techniques include observations, interviews, and documents in the form of manuscripts and archives, while data analysis is carried out through data reduction, presentation, and conclusion. The use of these rigorous and systematic methods ensures the reliability and validity of the findings, which have important implications for the field of Islamic Education in Minangkabau. The subject of this study pertains to Madrasah Tarbiyah Islamiyah Canduang.
 Keywords: orthodoxy, fiqh-sufistic, Islamic education, Minangkabau

JAPANESE GARDENS: FROM THE MIDDLE AGES TO PUBLIC SPACES OF THE MEIJI ERA

Gardens in Japan appeared in the 7th century AD and were formed in accordance with Chinese geomantic ideas. They were not intended for aesthetic admiration and had primarily a utilitarian function: protecting the owner of the house from harmful environmental influences (evil spirits). This function was ensured by the “correct” arrangement of stones and the “correct” arrangement of water flows. These rules were formulated in the first treatise on garden art that has come down to us, “Sakuteiki” (“Records on the Arrangement of Gardens”), which was written by Tachibana no Toshitsuna (1028–1094). To avoid curse from other people, the garden plan was kept secret and known only to the owner. During the Tokugawa period (1603–1867), princes (daimyo) began to establish huge gardens, which served as an indicator of their power. Strangers were not allowed inside, but these gardens acquired an aesthetic function, as demonstrated by the example of the Rikugien Garden in Edo. After the Meiji Revolution, the class organization of society was abolished and the goal of creating a unified Japanese nation was posed. The establishment of gardens of a new public (Western) type was supposed to serve to attain this goal. All types of former gardens were models of ideal nature; public gardens were designed to model state values. Using the example of the Ueno Garden, it is shown that public gardens were a specific space where the authorities demonstrated to the Japanese the value picture of a “modern” imperial-type state.