4th 3rd Centuries BC Research Articles

Early Iron Age Surgical Technologies: Ante-mortem Trepanation among the Early Nomads of Gorny Altai

Results of a science-based analysis of ante-mortem trepanation carried out by Scythian Age surgeons of Gorny Altai (4th–3rd centuries BC) are presented. Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, energy dispersive X-ray fluorescent analysis using synchrotron radiation, and magnetic resonance tomography were supplemented by micro- wear experiments. All trepanations were performed by scraping and included two stages. The bone tissue around the holes reveals high concentrations of copper and tin but no traces of iron or arsenic, suggesting that surgical instruments were made of tin bronze. A knife, experimentally manufactured of copper, tin, and zinc alloy and shaped like knives used by Southern Siberian nomads, was successfully used to perform trepanation on a cadaver.

Trepanation among the Early Nomads of Gorny Altai: A Multidisciplinary Study

Three trepanned crania from 4th–3rd century BC low-ranking burials in Gorny Altai are described. The probable motives behind such operations are discussed, their efficiency is assessed, and techniques are reconstructed using optical macroscopic examination, multi-slice computed tomography, X-ray fluorescence, and mass spectrometry of bone tissue. Trepanations were apparently medical rather than ritual. Our data support the idea that the 4th–3rd century BC inhabitants of the Altai-Sayan Highlands had enough knowledge and skills to perform complex cranial surgery. Because the instruments were made of tin bronze, and the Minusinsk Basin was the only place in southern Siberia where such bronze was smelted (by the Saragash people), at least two successful trepanations were probably performed by immigrants from that region.

Santuarios y poder ideológico en el Sureste ibérico peninsular (siglos IV-III a.C.): paisajes, ceremonias y símbolos

The dynamic of the Late Iron Age during last centuries before the Roman expansion was defined in Western Europe and in the Mediterranean area by an increasing social complexity, which led to the consolidation of the socio-political elites. Although this process presented different patterns in every regional area, the ideology was a common key tool during this period and it was used by the elite in order to reinforce its position within the community. The use of ideology promoted by the elite is visible in the most different aspects of the life of those communities, such as their necropolis, their pottery and, especially, their cult places. All of them were spaces where that ideology was ‘materialised’ and where it became visible to the entire community. In the case of the Iberian Peninsula, both the importance of the ideology for the elites and their interest in materialising it are clearly illustrated through the iconographic programs developed in different peninsular sites, such as those of San Miguel de Liria (Valencia), Porcuna and El Pajarillo (Jaen). Research developed in diverse Mediterranean and European areas has demonstrated the special significance of cult places as spaces of social representation during the pre-roman period, presenting them as ideal sites to analyse that materialisation of the ideology linked to the elites. These works offer, along with the anthropological studies, an interesting comparative view to analyse the cult places in the Iberian Peninsula and, particularly, in the Iberian Southeast. This is the study area of this paper which focuses on the analysis of these sites in the current area of Murcia between the 4th-3rd centuries BC, as spaces where the materialisation of the ideology by the local elites is more easily visible through the archaeological record. The paper pays close attention to those cult places directly linked to the main settlements (oppida) where these local elites resided. The study area presents a double interest. Firstly, it lacks analyses which approach from this perspective all these regional cult places as a whole. Secondly, some of the most important peninsular cult places are located here, such as El Cigarralejo (Mula), La Encarnacion (Caravaca), La Luz (Verdolay) and Coimbra del Barranco Ancho (Jumilla). They offer a wide amount of archaeological information which becomes especially useful for the proposal approach. Anthropological studies have defined three main dimensions where ideology is usually materialised within a society and all of them are presented in the study area: landscape (monuments, symbolic and strategic locations, architecture), symbolic objects (imported products, images, iconography) and ceremonies (offerings, presence of priests, etc.). The archaeological record of the regional sanctuaries, along with their topographical location in the territory and their links with the main oppida, illustrates really well the presence of all these dimensions in the analysed territory and presents a more integrated picture of the regional cult places within the process of geopolitical consolidation of the elites which defined both the Europe of the Late Iron Age and the Iberian Peninsula in the previous centuries to the Roman arrival.

Les Delphiens au miroir de leurs offrandes monumentales : élite sociale et notabilité politique dans une petite cité de Grèce centrale (IVe-Ier s. av. J.-C.)

The Delphians in the Mirror of their Monumental Offerings : Social Elite and Political Notability in a Small City-State of Central Greece (4th-1st century BC) The study of about thirty monuments dedicated by Delphians allows to outline a social and political reading and to conclude that Delphic society experienced two successive regimes of monumental offering. During a first period (4th-3rd century BC), there appears to be no strong correlation between monumental offerings and exercise of political power in the city. At the beginning of the 2nd century BC, even as the democratic nature of the institutions is no longer contested, the top of the Delphian political notability decides to project itself through monuments celebrating the unity of the family and the excellence of its members. The concentration of political power in a narrow group during the second half of the 1st century BC could rely on practices of social distinctions already common for over a century.

Colmenares (L’Alacantí), un hábitat ibérico de llanura en época plena

Se presentan en este artículo los resultados obtenidos de la excavación íntegra de Colmenares, un asentamiento en el llano datado en época ibérica plena. El estudio de su planta y de su ajuar cerámico permite vislumbrar su función productiva relacionada con la explotación agropecuaria, aunque existen dudas sobre su concreta actividad. Por otro lado, su propia existencia sugiere una amplia reflexión sobre los hábitats de llanura y su integración en los territorios de los oppida ibéricos, tanto desde el punto de vista económico como en el plano socio-político, abriendo así nuevas posibilidades de análisis sobre el poblamiento secundario de época ibérica en la antigua Contestania.

Pazyryk Burial at Khankarinsky Dol in the Northwestern Altai

The paper presents the results of studies conducted at the Pazyryk burial mound at the Khankarinsky Dol burial ground in the Northwestern Altai. Based on the burial rite, grave goods and results of radiocarbon analysis, this site is attributed to the 4th–3rd centuries BC. The paper focuses on an analysis of the burial rite and a reconstruction of a unique female headdress which is decorated with zoomorphic appliquéd ornaments and tops. These fi ndings considerably increase our knowledge of the nomadic costume of Central Asia during the Scythian-Saka period.

The use of chromium minerals in the 4th–3rd century BC China? A preliminary study of a bronze Pan unearthed from Jiuliandun Graves, Hubei Province, central southern China

AbstractA bronze Pan (water vessel), dating back to the 4th–3rd century BC, was excavated at Jiuliandun in Hubei Province, central southern China, in 2002. The Pan attracts wide attention among the Chinese archaeologists and conservators for its uniqueness in style and color, which turns out to be due to a black‐brown film of about 1 mm thickness. In the present work, a combined use of X‐ray fluorescence (XRF), micro‐Raman, and X‐ray diffraction (XRD) was employed to determine both chemical and physical compositions of the Pan's film.The results are summarized as follows: (1) The film, as XRF analysis indicates, has high concentrations of chromium (Cr) and iron (Fe); (2) Both Raman and XRD analyses suggest that the element Cr probably exists in the film mainly in the form of chromium oxide (Cr2O3). Raman analysis also implies the presence of PbCrO4·PbO in the film; (3) XRD analysis suggests that the element Fe exists in the film in the form of magnetite (Fe3O4).Based on these analytical results and Chinese historical records, we propose that, as early as in the 3rd century BC, people in central southern China might have discovered and intentionally used chromium minerals for bronze surface treatment (such as coating). The source of chromium minerals used in this period was likely Cr‐spinel minerals from meteorites. More work remains to be done to test the possibility of using Cr‐spinel minerals for bronze production and decoration. Other issues, such as the possibility of forming a chromium‐rich film during the underground burial, also need to be solved. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Iron Age Landscape and Rural Habitat in the Edetan Territory, Iberia (4th–3rd centuries BC)

This article focuses on the rural organisation and the settlement pattern of the Iberian Iron Age city
 of Edeta. Ongoing research into its macro-spatial organisation has revealed the existence of different
 functions and internal features within the settlements and their relation to a wider and more integrated
 space: the territory. Based on excavation and survey data, we present new questions and analytical
 categories in order to approach issues related to territory formation and the emergence of socio-economic
 complexity in the Iron Age societies of ancient eastern Iberia.

Gas chromatographic–mass spectrometric characterisation of plant gums in samples from painted works of art

This paper presents an analytical GC–MS procedure to study the chemical composition of plant gums, determining aldoses and uronic acids in one step. The procedure is based on the silylation of aldoses and uronic acids, released from plant gums by microwave assisted hydrolysis, and previously converted into the corresponding diethyl-dithioacetals and diethyl-dithioacetal lactones. Using this method only one peak for each compound is obtained, thus providing simple and highly reproducible chromatograms. The analytical procedure was optimised using reference samples of raw plant gums (arabic, karaya, ghatti, guar, locust bean and tragacanth, cherry, plum and peach gums), commercial watercolours and paint layers prepared according to ancient recipes at the Opificio delle Pietre Dure of Florence (Italy). To identify gum media in samples of unknown composition, a decisional schema for the gum identification and the principal component analysis of the relative sugar percentage contents were employed. The procedure was used to study samples collected from wall paintings from Macedonian tombs (4th–3rd centuries bc) and from the Mycenaean “Palace of Nestor” (13th century bc) in Pylos, Greece. The presence of carbohydrates was ascertained and plant gum binders (fruit and a mixture of tragacanth and fruit tree gums) were identified in some of the samples.

Probable early presence of leprosy in Europe in a Celtic skeleton of the 4th-3rd century BC (Casalecchio di Reno, Bologna, Italy)

Examination of the skeleton of an adult male from the Celtic necropolis of Casalecchio di Reno (Bologna, Italy; 4th–3rd century BC) revealed some lesions on the feet, especially bilateral acro-osteolysis of the metatarsals, and on the tibia, fibula and hand. The morphological and radiographic characteristics of the bones are consistent with a diagnosis of leprosy. Other features of the rhinomaxillary region support this diagnosis. As far as we know, this case could represent the oldest skeletal evidence of leprosy in Europe, indicating the early spread of this disease toward the Western world. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A wreck of the late 4th or early 3rd century BC near Donuzlav

International Journal of Nautical ArchaeologyVolume 2, Issue 1 p. 25-31 A wreck of the late 4th or early 3rd century BC near Donuzlav V. D. Blavatsky, V. D. BlavatskySearch for more papers by this authorB. G. Peters, B. G. PetersSearch for more papers by this author V. D. Blavatsky, V. D. BlavatskySearch for more papers by this authorB. G. Peters, B. G. PetersSearch for more papers by this author First published: March 1973 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-9270.1973.tb00486.xCitations: 3 Translated by D. J. Blackman from Blavatsky & Peters (1969). For a discussion of the significance of the results, see Blackman (1972). The figures have had to be reproduced direct from the figures in Blavatsky & Peters (1967, 1969); hence their uneven quality. AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume2, Issue1March 1973Pages 25-31 RelatedInformation