3rd Millennium BC Research Articles

Relationships between Globular Amphora and Corded Ware occupation phases in Złota-Nad Wawrem site, Sandomierz Upland. Chronometric and stratigraphic evidence

On the Nad Wawrem site in Złota, unique instances of stratigraphic sequences were recorded, involving materials linked to the Globular Amphora culture and Corded Ware culture. This article discusses these sequences and presents hitherto unpublished materials that may contribute to the study of the decline of the Eneolithic in Małopolska. The stratigraphic sequences involve the presence of pottery belonging to the older phase of the Corded Ware culture in pits related to the Globular Amphora culture and the intercutting of Globular Amphora settlement features by Corded Ware graves. In settlement pits, besides dominating materials of the Globular Amphora culture, pottery typical of the older phase of the Corded Ware culture was discovered. Corded Ware niche graves, in turn, were clearly younger than the Globular Amphora settlement pits they cut into. The study of the sequences reveals the complexity of cultural relations on the Sandomierz Upland in the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. An interesting aspect is the cross-border nature of the pottery often treated as a clear cultural marker. Substantiated by absolute dating, the synchronous development model of the Globular Amphora culture, the older phase of the Corded Ware culture and the Złota culture is reflected in the peculiarity of recorded pottery assemblages.

Absolute chronology of the Globular Amphora funeral complex at Malice, Sandomierz Upland

The article presents new radiocarbon datings made for a funeral complex from Malice, site 1, located on the Sandomierz Upland and related to the Globular Amphora culture. The complex included at least two human graves (features no. 32 and 33) and two animal deposits or sacrificial pits (no. 31 and probably 54). Feature 32 was a collective grave including five burials (of a male, a female and three children), while in Feature 33 the only one disarticulated human skeleton has been excavated. Pit 31 contained at least three animal individuals. It is possible the unexamined Pit 54 also contained animal depositions. The described features probably formed two clusters, each of which included a human grave and an accompanying pit with animal deposits. Altogether ten radiocarbon dates were obtained with the dated bone samples coming from five human skeletons found in Graves 32 and 33, and animal remains from Pit 31. The calibration results point to the first half of the 3rd millennium BC and stay between 2909 and 2472 BC (with the probability of 95.4%) or more precisely between 2898 and 2490 BC (probability of 68.2%). However, thanks to the stratigraphic documentation it was possible to determine that five deceased from Feature 32 were buried in three phases most likely to ca. 2850–2750 BC. It is highly probable that individual burials were separated by short time intervals. A similar age should be adopted for Feature 31 – a sacrificial pit linked to Grave 32. However, it is not possible to determine with any certainty the age of Grave 33: it could have been contemporaneous with, or slightly younger (ca 2620–2500 BC) than Feature 32.

The Odino-Krokhalev pottery type of Eastern Kazakhstan (problem statement)

The paper deals with the question of identifying the Odino-Krokhalev pottery type among the materials of the Early Bronze Age of East Kazakhstan. It has been recorded on 41 sites of the region, mainly within the Kulunda plain and the Irtysh River valley and accounts for 14% of the total number of recorded vessels. This ceramic type is mainly represented by open and closed can-shaped vases. The predominant ornamental element used to decorate the outer surface of the vessels is represented by dots or oblique lines that form motives in the form of horizontal rows. The decor is usually applied using the pricking method with a stick, an animal spatula, as well as a smooth or comb stamp, while the false textile ornamentation is not documented. The latter occurs in settlements associated with the Elunino and Chemarsk materials. According to the available radiocarbon dates the period of diffusion of the Odino-Krokhalev pottery type in East Kazakhstan is in the Early Bronze Age (3rd early 2nd millennium BC). Apparently, the appearance of such elements as notches and wolf teeth is associated with the cultural influences of the bearers of the Odino-Krokhalev ceramic firstly in the decorative composition of the Elunino and then of the Andronovo vessels of the South of Western Siberia. The primary task is to find and study stratified sites with the Odin-Krokhalev pottery type.

Archaeological Traces of Hunter-gatherer Seasonal Occupation in Western Coastal Estonia from the Second Half of the 6th Millennium to the End of the 3rd Millennium BC

Results of archaeological surveys of paleocoastlines in the Western Estonian Lowland are discussed with paleogeographic reconstructions. Mapped sites and stray finds can be dated to the period between the end of the Pre-Pottery Mesolithic and the end of the Neolithic (roughly 5300–2000 cal BC). Uniquely for Estonia and neighbouring countries in this time frame, the overwhelming majority of the sites are aceramic (and the rest feature very few pottery finds) and the find diversity is otherwise low, too. The findings are interpreted as traces of seasonal occupation and mobility, for the first time demonstrated in the Eastern Baltics on such a large scale.

Pile Dwellings in the Circum-Baltic Area

The phenomenon of northern pile dwellings has been found in different geographical zones and landscapes of the Circum-Baltic region: in sea landscapes and on the shores of inland lakes and rivers. Inland sites were established in specific lacustrine landscapes, appearing within former post-glacial basins. The pile dwellings revealed here are characterized by different types of wooden buildings, including structures with raised floors. They are dated to the 4th millennium BC to 4th century BC in Central Europe and the Baltics, and to the end of the 4th to end of the 3rd millennium BC – in NW Russia and Belarus. They appeared in major cases independently and followed different cultural trajectories. The article presents an overview of a number of sites which can be attributed to pile dwelling settlements distributed in the Circum-Baltic area. It discusses particular features of their construction, traits of material culture, and site location patterns.

When did roosters start singing at Arslantepe? A preliminary assessment of the presence and spread of Gallus gallus (Linnaeus, 1758) in Iron Age Eastern Anatolia

Among the faunal remains brought to light in the recent Iron Age excavations at the site of Arslantepe (South-East Turkey), the discovery of the bones belonging to an adult rooster is of particular interest. The red junglefowl, Gallus gallus (Linnaeus, 1758), is not autochthonous of Anatolia; the species is native to and was originally domesticated in south-eastern Asia, reaching the Mesopotamian region only at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. Throughout the Bronze Age and up to the beginning of the Iron Age the evidence of domestic junglefowl remains sporadic. However, from the second half of the 2nd millennium BC onwards, findings became more consistent, allowing us to trace its spread and evolution. The discovery of the first rooster at Arslantepe, in a level dated to the very beginning of the 1st millennium BC, fits with the general development of this species into the Near East and from here, during the advanced Iron Age, to the Mediterranean and to the West. The article aims at integrating this discovery into its geographical, cultural, chronological, and zoological background. Moreover, the discussion is broadened within the complex scenario of the development of the Iron Age Syro-Anatolian societies. We argue that the scarcity of chicken remains until the beginning of the 1st millennium BC might not be only related to taphonomic conditions but also to the fact that the species was an exotic rarity with possibly some sort of symbolic relevance.

Archeolinguistics

Archeolinguistcs is a field of linguistic studies, which creates an ancient picture of the world. For instance: let’s talk about the ancient cultures such as Kura–Araxes (Kur–Araz). Archeological excavations in Georgia with the amazing findings of Kura–Araxes (Kur–Araz) Culture, that existed from about 4000 BC until about 2000 BC, and Shulaveri-Shomu Tepe Culture which preceded the Kura–Araxes Culture in this region or Colchian Culture 3000 BCE to 600 BCE, Trialeti Culture late 3rd and early 2nd millennium BC, Bedeni-Martkopi or Early Kurgan Culture before 2550 BC, and many others. The excavations showed that Kura–Araxes Culture and Shulaveri-Shomu Tepe Culture are remarkably wealthy. The economy was based on farming and livestock-raising (especially of cattle and sheep). They grew grain and orchard crops, and are known to have used implements to make flour. They raised cattle, sheep, goats, dogs, and in later phases, horses. They worked with copper, arsenic, silver, gold, tin, and bronze. These archeological cultures how a precocious metallurgical development, which strongly influenced surrounding regions. Viticulture and wine-making were widely practiced in this area from the earliest times. The word ‘vine’ in many languages worldwide comes from Georgian (‘ghvino’). The earliest evidence of domesticated grapes in the world has been found at Gadachrili Gora, near the village of Imiri, southeastern of Georgia; carbon-dating points to the date of about 6000 BC. Grape pips dating back to the V-IVth millennia B.C. were found in Shulaveri; others dating back to the IVth millennium B.C. were found in 'Shulaveri area' in Georgia. Kura-Araxes and Shulaveri-Shomu cultures developed gradually through a synthesis of several cultural traditions, including the ancient cultures of the Caucasus and nearby territories.Following the archeological vectors we can research the linguistic lexical bases of the transported things and/or customs and traditions, following the archeological path and revealing the historical faces for the worlds reconstructing them with the well-known methods of historical-comparative linguistics, and creating the archeolinguistic dictionaries. Of course the historical linguistics has already used its methods to reconstruct the words, but archeolinguistics will systemically follow the vectors viewing the wide lexicosemantic and cultural backgrounds, considering the artifacts as the units of the entire system. On the other hand, archeologists give the names to the things they find, but they never get any linguistic consultations or advices. ‘A cult item’ usually is named a thing with unknown functions - by the archeologists. The archeological vectors had been spread from this region to the south, west and north, transporting the cultural and household appliances. The migrated things had their names and functions. Of course the names migrated with these things as well. These migrated things have been adopted functionally and linguistically for the each case at the each location. The proposed theory states that linguistic vectors followed archeological ones. The challenge is to study these combined vectors, and the field can be called as ‘Archeological linguistics’ or ‘Archeolinguistcs’. Archeological linguistics will study the ancient linguistic picture of the world. Actually this will be the interdisciplinary studies, which will request the high level professionals in history-archeology and linguistics. The ancient word-roots can be revealed and the full lingvoculutral portrait can be restored for the each region around the globe.

Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) Investigation of Engraved Chalk Plaques from the Stonehenge Region

Newly discovered and previously documented Late Neolithic chalk plaques from the Stonehenge locality have been subjected to new, non-invasive techniques which allow access to previously unseen elements of archaeological evidence. The application of these methods – involving Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) and Polynomial Texture Mapping (PTM) – has revealed detail of the surface preparation and allowed methods and sequence of the compositions to be unpicked, clarifying their complexities. The results reveal a range of approaches to the compositions, some of which demonstrate planning, order, and intention while others include less systematic, rapidly executed sketches. Investigations of lines and surfaces have been made, supplemented by preliminary studies of replicated test pieces, to examine potential implements used in their creation and remark on plaque biographies and surface attrition following manufacture. Furthermore, detail revealed by RTI provides indications of the orientations in which some of the plaques should be viewed and – in one instance – suggests a ‘reflected’ element that may not be entirely abstract. Results from improved radiocarbon determinations place the plaques in the early part of the 3rd millennium bc which, together with identification of individual motifs, allows the plaques and the designs to be reconsidered within the corpus of Neolithic art in the British Isles.

BRONZE AGE SURVEY ON TAVSANLI HOYUK (KUTAHYA, TURKEY): PRELIMINARY RESULTS

Tavsanli Hoyuk is situated approximately 2 km from Tavsanli District of Kutahya Province, and in the central part of the Tavsanli Plain. The main objective of the Tavsanli Hoyuk survey is to shed light onto the transition between the end of the 3rd Millennium BC and the 2nd Millennium BC. The purpose of the geo-archaeological research around the Tavsanli Hoyuk was to reveal the influential factors in selection of the spot for founding the mound and the environmental changes that took place around the mound in time and space. For this purpose, vibracorings were done at three points on a line stretching from the alluvial fillings left by Orhaneli Stream flowing in the east to the mound. The preliminary results of our research seem eye-opener for in two ways. It revealed environmental conditions of Tavsanli Hoyuk but also confirmed that the findspot is a prominent Bronze Age city in Western Anatolia. The settlement is likely to have been established as a city for the supply of natural resources around and transfer within the framework of the trade network.

Warrior graves reconsidered: metal, power and identity in Copper Age Italy

ABSTRACT The article proposes a new interpretation of Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age warrior graves grounded in the ‘Rinaldone’ burial tradition of central Italy, 4th and 3rd millennia BC. In European archaeology, warrior graves are frequently thought to signal the rise of sociopolitical inequality rooted in metal wealth. The work questions the empirical and conceptual foundations of this reading, arguing that, in early Europe, copper was not as rare and valuable as it is often presumed to be; that metalworking did not demand uniquely complex skills; and that metal-rich burials cannot be interpreted in light of modernising ideas of identity. It is argued instead that the key to decoding prehistoric warrior graves lies in context-specific notions of gender, age, and the life course. In particular, life and death circumstances including violence (both inflicted and suffered) would determine why certain individuals were laid to rest with lavish weapon assemblages.

NON-INVASIVE INVESTIGATION OF BURIAL MOUNDS IN THE BASINS OF THE MURAFA AND RIV RIVERS IN VINNYTSIA REGION IN 2019

In 2019, the implementation of the first stage of the field investigations within the project «Podolia as a contact area in the 3rd millennium BC: Kurgans on the rivers Murafa and Riv» began. The project is financed by the National Science Centre, Poland, under no. 2017/27/B/HS3/01444.
 The main goal of the research is to identify the forms and intensity of the intercultural contacts in the region of the middle course of the Southern Buh and the Dnister interfluve. The burial mounds, located between the rivers Murafa (left-bank basin of the Dnister River) and Riv (right-bank basin of the Southern Buh River), are objects of the study. Professional archeological excavations of the burial mounds in the region have not been conducted before. There are only data about unauthorized excavations of several burial mounds by locals at the turn of the XIX—XX centuries, which perhaps contained burials with artefacts of the Globular Amphora culture. More than a century later, archaeologists conducted registration of the burial mounds in the region. M. Potupchyk has surveyed and mapped most of the mound groups.
 In the framework of the project realization, the non-invasive geophysical studies of four burial mound groups, located near the villages of Sloboda Noskovetska, Tokarivka and Sloboda Mezhyrivska of Zhmerynka district and between the villages of Ivanivtsi and Antonivka of Bar district of Vinnytsia region were conducted. The total obtained area is 8.19 hectares. Thirteen burial mounds are located there.
 A number of anomalies inside and outside the burial mounds were found by magnetic survey. Most often, anomalies form circular or square structures that surround mound and can be interpreted as ditches. Mainly in the central parts of the burial mounds, anomalies of various shapes were also found. They appear to be associated with burial objects. Sometimes anomalies outside the burial mounds, but in close proximity to them, are also interpreted as potentially archaeological objects. The latter may be associated with a variety of funeral rites. There were also burial mounds within which no clear magnetic anomalies were observed. This is probably also a reflection of the funeral traditions and construction of the mounds.

Radiocarbon Chronology of Chuzhjajol Culture

Authors summarize and analyze the data on the 14C chronology of the Chuzhjajol culture in the Far northeast of the Europe (the Komi Republic and the Nenets Autonomous Okrug or the basins of the Pechora, Vychegda and Mezen rivers). As a result of the study of dwellings at the sites Vadniur I/7A, Vadniur I/5 and Muchkas, 17 new dates were obtained and its most probable age was determined within the framework of 4th – mid. 3rd millennium BC. These data make possible to attribute more convincingly the earliest manifestations of the Chuzhjajol traditions in the region to the Neolithic, and their further development to the Chalcolithic. However, evidence of metalworking at the sites of this culture has not been identified, and its dynamics is so far expressed only in pottery: the use of natural organic inclusions in clay and the simplification of the design of «lips». This probably indicates a connection with the bearers of porous ceramics of the Garino tradition. It was determined that dwellings of the Vadniur type on the Vychegda and Mezen rivers are the oldest structures in Northern Eurasia with a complex system of ventilation and heating of living space in the form of horizontal channels connected with fireplaces. The materials obtained as a result of the excavation of the basic complexes of the Chuzhjajol culture allows to date those using different materials and to determine the possibilities of using geochronometric methods on the archaeological sites of the taiga zone. The total volume of the obtained information determines the problem of finding the origins of Chuzhjajol traditions of housebuilding, flint knapping and pottery, which are unique for the region under study.

Analysis of periosteal lesions from commingled human remains at the Xagħra Circle hypogeum reveals the first case of probable scurvy from Neolithic Malta

AbstractObjectivesPalaeopathological analysis is key for characterising population health at the individual level and across large assemblages but is rarely exploited to unite the remains of disarticulated individuals. This study explores the potential for individual identification through differential diagnosis of periosteal lesions in a commingled deposit, both to ascertain the number of individuals represented and provide a differential diagnosis.Materials and MethodsThe late Neolithic Xagħra Circle hypogeum on Gozo contains the remains of more than 800 individuals, most of which were transformed to a collective disarticulated assemblage. Across the excavated population, pathological observations are strikingly low. In one specific 1 × 1‐m area in a single stratigraphic context, fragmented and disarticulated cranial and post‐cranial non‐adult bones were identified that displayed periosteal new bone formation. To aid differential diagnosis, macroscopic analysis, taphonomic analysis and micro‐computed tomography (μCT) imaging were integrated.ResultsThis approach, when combined with osteobiographical analyses, reveals that the elements most likely derive from one individual, a young child, who presents a probable case of scurvy. The potential for micronutrient co‐morbidities are explored, but without further microscopic study it cannot be determined if this individual also experienced iron‐deficiency anaemia and/or rickets.DiscussionIn the context of the Mediterranean and Europe in later prehistory, reported cases of scurvy are currently low and often reveal periods of environmental instability and resource insufficiency. Our finding of non‐adult scurvy in late 3rd millennium BC Malta contributes to a developing picture of an increasingly unstable palaeoenvironment and declining population health at this time, although it may also indicate an individual case of poor childhood health within this broader context.

HAZOR EB III CITY ABANDONMENT AND IBA PEOPLE RETURN: RADIOCARBON CHRONOLOGY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS

ABSTRACTTel Hazor is one of only a few sites in Israel where remains of the Intermediate Bronze Age (IBA) in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC were found on top of Early Bronze III (EB III) city remains. A probe excavation was held at Hazor in 2017 to explore the chronological relation between the EB III and the IBA occupation. The radiocarbon (14C) absolute dates generated from this probe excavation show that following the EB III city demise, the site was abandoned for up to a few hundred years before it was resettled in the IBA. 14C dates obtained from the last level of the EB III city are well before 2500 BCE, fully aligned with the recent “High Chronology” for the EBA in the southern Levant. The excavation also produced dates associated with IBA “Black Wheel-Made Ware” vessels, which were found in large numbers at Hazor.

ABU SALABIKH – ABSOLUTE RADIOCARBON CHRONOLOGY

This article presents a new absolute chronology for the archaeological site of Abu Salabikh, Southern Iraq, during the 4th and 3rd millennia BC. The main goals of this study were to synchronise the sequences of the West and Main Mounds, corroborating the dating schemes based on archaeological and textual finds, and assigning an absolute date to the transition between Uruk and Early Dynastic (ED) periods. Previously published dates and newly produced 14C measurements were used in tandem with Bayesian statistical models to arrive at more precise time estimates. Some inconsistencies in the results point to possible disturbance of the archaeological sequence in the context of tannur kilns and highlight the need for careful sample collection and selection methodology. The results suggest a hiatus in settlement between the Uruk and ED periods c. 3000 BC, and confirm the date of c. 2650-2500 BC for the Early Dynastic ED IIIa Fara-style texts.

The first casting mould for a ‘Syrian Bottle’ from Lipnik, Bulgaria

Abstract The following article presents the first mould ever discovered for casting a so-called “Syrian Bottle”, a distinctive vessel type that originated in Mesopotamia around the mid 3rd millennium BC and soon after spread to Anatolia, the Aegean and Southeast Europe, as imports and local derivatives. A few examples were made from precious metals and lead, the most notable one being a golden globular bottle, part of “Priam’s” Treasure A” from Early Bronze Age Troy. The mould from Lipnik seems to have been intended for the production of small metal bottles of ‘Syrian’ shape, and supportive agents like a green sand core applied for the production of such a complex item. The mould, however, was obviously never used. A review of associated manufacturing details like pegholes, riser and vent show that although these features were particularly prominent in the 2nd millennium BC, moulds from earlier (Anatolian) contexts do possess such characteristics as well. This currently unique, locally produced example is therefore dated to the latest 3rd or earliest second millennium BC, coinciding with ever-growing interaction between distant cultural entities stretching from Mesopotamia to Southeast Europe and beyond, and allowing for the exchange of ideas, fashions and technologies.

Daniel and Ragnarök: Hybrid Mentality in the Pictorial Tradition of Early Rus’

Byzantine culture and aesthetics had a significant impact on the imagery of early Rus’—and not unidirectionally, but rather in the form of cross-cultural dialogue. Both traditional visual arts and monumental temple architecture often present symbolic diversity as a consequence of cultural hybridism. So, through the Biblical imagery and the Byzantine canon of aesthetics, one can clearly see the subjects and symbols of regional pre-Christian traditions. The motive to write this essay іs based on the study of Professor Nadiia Nikitenko on the frescoes of St. Sophia Cathedral of Kyiv, represented in this issue. Observing the missing South Tower image recorded by F. Solntsev in 1871, the researcher interprets the wolf-like two-headed monster and the hero with the weapon as if sprouting from it, as a Last Battle confrontation between Fenrir and Odin (emphasizing his bird-like helmet) (Fig. 1b). These parallels have brought about a number of remarks that we develop in our research. The confrontation scene between the hero and the monster (often two mirrored ones) is a popular subject of art of the early Middle Ages (Fig. 2, Fig. 3), which originated within the civilizations of the East in 4–3rd millennia BC, inspiring the imagery of the biblical origin. The scene “Daniel in the Lions’ Den” spread among the population of the Middle Dnieper, the British Isles, and Northern Europe especially in the 6–7th centuries, and then in the 11-12th. In the Vendel-Scandinavian context, similar compositions are often interpreted as a depiction of Ragnarök: the confrontation between Fenrir vs Odin, or Fenrir vs Tyr (and we insist that the very two were initially to fight in the Last Battle, while Odin / Wotan as the leader of Valhalla should have struggled with the mistress of Hel before the “classic” Eddic model was spread). In our opinion, it is not a coincidence that these scenes were massive in the middle of the 6th century: the probability of Climate disaster of 536 AD and Justinian Plague connection with the European and near East eschatological mood is claimed, as well as Nordic soteriology formation at that time. Therefore, even images of clearly Christian (Byzantine) origin had to be perceived in the context of the native worldview in the East and Northern Europe. Next time eschatological ideas erupted in 1000 AD and existed for some time after. The “Confrontation Scene” of the St. Sophia South Tower also has both Hellenic (Byzantine) and Scandinavian reading: Hercules defeats the hellish dog Cerberus as Infernal forces and, at the same time, it is Víðarr, the son of Odin, who defeats Fenrir-wolf. In the Ragnarök-related mythology, he was one of the only few who survived the end of the Universe. Víðarr brings hope and begins a new kingdom on a renewed earth. Therefore, we assume that the circumstance of the South Tower decoration was the death of Volodymyr and the war of his son Yaroslav with his brothers for the throne of Kyiv. Among the Varyags elite, Yaroslav’s triumph could have been seen as such a renewal.

Preliminary Report on the Survey of Hajjiabad-Varamin, a Site of the Konar Sandal Settlement Network (Jiroft, Kerman, Iran)

ABSTRACT The purpose of this article is to introduce the large prehistoric site of Hajjiabad-Varamin, its changes in time and the first discoveries made there, in the specific literature on the early Bronze Age of the south-eastern Iranian Plateau. The first part of the article describes the site, its present damaged conditions, the periodisation we adopted and the complex topographic shifts and changes of functions through time. The second part focuses on the settlement of the 3rd millennium BC and discusses a major craft activity area found east of the main elevation of the site, in which were manufactured vessels in various stones (white alabaster, grey limestones with white fossil inclusions, and probably chlorite). Collections include large drill-heads in volcanic rocks used on the interior of the stone pots, and standardised beads of a green and red-banded calcite broken while being drilled. While the stone vessels find abundant comparisons and were certainly in demand for long-distance trade, the beads type is not known in other contexts and were presumably made for a local demand. We also present the unusual find of a hoard of copper objects which helps framing the 3rd millennium BC centre in terms of cultural links and chronology.

Raw material choices and material characterization of the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC pottery from the Petit‐Chasseur necropolis: Insights into the megalith‐erecting society of the Upper Rhône Valley, Switzerland

AbstractOwing to its well‐preserved and long‐lasting archaeological record, the necropolis of Petit‐Chasseur in the Upper Rhône Valley (3100–1600 BC) showcases the economic, social, and ideological changes of 3rd and 2nd millennium BC Europe excellently. An in‐depth investigation of pottery artifacts was carried out using multiple spectroscopic and microscopic techniques. Nine types of ceramic fabrics were identified based on the variety of temper and natural inclusions; however, the mineralogy and phase chemistry of the ceramic matrix showed the paste to be primarily illitic or muscovitic, irrespective of the inclusion type. Muscovitic clays were likely procured from the fluvioglacial, glaciolacustrine, colluvial, and till sediment abundantly available at higher altitudes of the Upper Rhône Valley, whereas illitic clays were acquired from pedogenized loess horizons or the Rhône River alluvium. Different raw material choices and paste preparation practices suggest distinct ceramic traditions that likely existed in the valley during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. This, along with the hypothesized provenance of the raw material, is likely in favor of various prehistoric communities gathering at the megalithic necropolis from close and distant parts of the valley using the Petit‐Chasseur site as a place of assembly.

Unfolding beeswax use in Neolithic and Chalcolithic Cyprus through molecular analysis of lipids extracted from ceramic containers

During the past 30 years, molecular analyses have provided an important corpus of evidence for the exploitation of Apis mellifera products, honey and beeswax, since the Neolithic. In this paper, we report the earliest, to our knowledge, evidence of bee product exploitation in Cyprus dated to the Ceramic Neolithic (5th millennium BC) and the Chalcolithic periods (4th–mid 3rd millennia BC). Systematic sampling and analysis of organic remains absorbed in the walls of ceramic containers from the Ceramic Neolithic sites of Sotira Teppes and Kantou Kouphovounos and also the Middle Chalcolithic site of Erimi Pamboula, located to the central and southern part of Cyprus, were undertaken. We conducted lipid residue analysis in seventy-nine sherd samples, using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry that provided direct chemical evidence for the presence of beeswax residues in twelve vessels from Erimi Pamboula and one vessel from Sotira Teppes. These findings bring new light on the use of beeswax in Cyprus, pushing back the date for the exploitation of Apis mellifera on the island to the second half of the 5th millennium BC. The sampled vessels do not imply a pattern in pottery types where beeswax was preserved, although its extensive presence at Erimi Pamboula ceramics suggests the diachronic use of bee products in the area.