3rd Century AD Research Articles

Clarity and brilliance: antimony in colourless natron glass explored using Roman glass found in Britain

This paper discusses the development of Roman antimony decolourised natron glass, its dominance, and subsequent decline, using new trace element data for colourless glass found in Britain. Experimental glasses are used to investigate the influence of different proportions of raw materials (particularly the ratio of natron to calcium carbonate) on the resulting transparency or opacity of glass when antimony is added. Focusing on the 1st to 3rd centuries AD, the study has found that (1) There are chronological differences in antimony colourless glass compositions including (a) some early vessels have abnormally low calcium, aluminium and barium levels; (b) 1st/mid-2nd-century AD vessels in Britain may also contain up to 0.6 wt% lead oxide whereas mid-2nd/3rd-century AD vessels contain less than 300 ppm, and (c) the antimony content tends to decline over time. (2) These developments can be linked to production and recycling practices; but trace elements suggest that all of these antimony colourless glasses share an origin, probably Egypt. (3) Crucially, production of experimental glasses illustrates the inherent suitability of a sodium-rich, calcium-poor base glass composition for making antimony colourless glass, as it readily dissolves added antimony; conversely lower-sodium, higher-calcium glasses start to form opacifying calcium-antimonate crystals with the same quantities of antimony. Thus, the sodium-rich, calcium-poor glass composition from Egypt was ideally suited for decolourising with antimony and formed a water-clear glass. The calcium-rich Syro-Palestine glasses were more easily opacified with antimony to make opaque glass, but were decolourised with manganese, not antimony.

Constantine’s Introduction of the Gold Solidus

In the Roman Empire of 3rd century AD was subject to serious hyperinflation, which was caused by the overproduction of the denarius, which by this point contained minimal amounts of silver. At the end of the century Diocletian attempted to solve this problem by fixing the prices of goods but was unsuccessful. Constantine I during his reign in the early 4 th century AD introduced a new gold currency, the solidus, which successfully brought down inflation. The solidus had a consistent weight and a floating exchange rate with the base-metal currency. The result of this was a stable denomination that acted in some respects as a gold standard. Constantine was able to accomplish what previous emperors could not because of two extraordinary events: his conversion to Christianity and the discovery of a new source of gold in the reign of his son Constantius II. His conversion to Christianity allowed him to confiscate the wealth from pagan temples. The accounts of these confiscations by Eusebius were previously thought to have been primarily laudative. Recent work done by Kevin Wilkinson on the dating of Palladas, another contemporary writer, has shown that these confiscations were a reality. These two events supplied the empire with enough gold to effectively jump-start his economic strategy. A better understanding of these events is achieved by examining modern historical parallels. These are the confiscations of Jewish property in Germany during the 1930s, Spain’s economy after discovering New World gold and Brazil’s use of a floating exchange-rate to stop hyperinflation.

Корейский полуостров и Японские острова: сложение особенностей и заимствование культурных традиций в эпоху палеометалла (материалы к учебному курсу «Археология зарубежной Азии»)

Purpose. The period of the most intensive contacts of the ancient population of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese Islands (3rd – 7th centuries AD) is of special interest for study. The period witnessed a wide spread of the tradition of building burial mounds (kurgans). Due to the artifacts found in the kurgans, it becomes possible to study various aspects of the people’s social life, including cultural contacts. We aimed at studying territorial alliances based on the cultural and historical background, such as the spread of agriculture based on wet rice cultivation, bronze and iron production, the emergence of states. Results. The kurgan tradition on the Korean peninsula is associated with the era of the Three Kingdoms (3rd – 7th centuries AD). The tradition of erecting mounds started in Koguryo state in the 1st century BC, then from the 3rd century AD it continued in Baekje, Silla and Kaya, and disappeared in the middle of the 6th century AD because of adopting Buddhism. Common barrows had stone embankments, but they are also found with earthen mounds. Burial chambers were first constructed vertically, then horizontal ones appeared. On the Japanese Islands, kurgans first appeared during the Yayoi period (3rd century BC – 3rd century AD) and were widely constructed during the Kofun period (3rd – 7th centuries AD). The barrows had earthen embankments with burial chambers inside. The barrows differed in the form of their embankment and size. The burials of the Kofun period in Japan continued the Yayoi period traditions to a certain extent. They had earthen embankments and were decorated with bronze mirrors and stone ornaments in the burial chambers. In addition, their feature is clay haniva figurines around the perimeter of the embankment. Starting from approximately the 5th century AD, there began to appear a certain homogeneity in the funerary structures of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese archipelago. Sueci ceramics became a typical element of the funeral rite, as well as bronze and iron objects, gold jewelry and luxury items which appeared in burial chambers. The construction of kurgans acquired some new features, such as stone chambers with side corridors. Both on the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese Islands, we observe similar types of embankments, such as round (embun), square (ho:fun), double round (so:embun), double square (so:ho:fun) and in the form of a “Japanese sea scallop” (hatategaishikikofun). Conclusion. The study of the structural features of the kurgans on the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese Islands allows us to conclude that there are similarities in the forms and materials of embankments and the forms of burial chamber construction. The main difference is the larger size of Japanese kurgans. The similarities we revealed can be explained by the mutual influence of the population of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese islands.

GIS and infographic applications in the North House of Arucci archaeological site (Aroche, Huelva)

The present paper is focused on the application of a methodological model specifically designed to develop the tasks related to analysis and dissemination of the Roman Hispania site of Arucci (Aroche, Huelva). The main aim of our approach is to reconcile the diffusion of the results obtained after the excavation, documentation, and the study of the archaeological record with the methodological analysis of a Geographic Information System (GIS). We consider that a GIS is the most appropriate tool in archaeology for this purpose since it allows users to manage a large amount of data in diverse formats and insert it in a closed topographic reference frame. For that purpose, we restrict the field of action to the North House (a house built in the time of Emperor Augustus that lasted until the 3rd century AD). The real power of this research relies on the integration of the digital building archaeological record in a GIS, while the architecture of the Roman house is reconstructed virtually from archaeological remains, in this way the domestic space is visually comprehensible. According to the results obtained in this pilot experience, we can affirm that the union of GIS and infographics allows archaeological reality to surpass the strictly academic scope and promote it to society making possible the Arucci site approachable to professionals of archaeology as well as to the uninitiated. The feasibility of the proposal that was carried out within the North House encourages us to consider the export of this study model to the rest of buildings that make up the site such as the foro, macellum, balneum as, well as other domus.

Statue bases with honorif ic inscriptions from Histria in the Early Roman period

The article focuses on a group of 17 monuments, which were considered mainly cippi, altars, bases, or simple blocks. These have been discovered in the Late Roman city wall, studied from an epigraphic point of view, and put back in the wall. Only two of them, now exposed at the site museum, could be studied also from the perspective of their functionality. Both present traces characteristic of the fastening of a bronze statue. These are monolithic rectangular bases with mouldings, and were made of local limestone. Most inscriptions originate from the second half of the 2nd century to the first half of the 3rd century AD. The bases on the other hand mark a fashion change in the display of the honorific statues during the 2nd century AD, being much taller and slenderer than the previous types of bases. Furthermore, in the practice of honouring by dedicating statues, a growing importance is given to the emperors, members of the imperial family, and of the Roman administration. The honoured members of the local elite also have ties to the Roman government through their titles and offices, being involved in the imperial cult. The inscription content and the monuments’ autopsy lead to several other observations concerning the occasion on which the statues have been erected, the reuse of the monuments, or the context display.

A Study of the Chemical Composition of the 3rd Century AD Bosporan Billon Staters by XRF-Analysis, Neutron Tomography and Diffraction

The results of the combined investigation of the chemical composition of the Bosporan King Rhescuporis V’s billon staters from the 2011 Phanagorian hoard by XRF spectroscopy, neutron tomography and diffraction, and metallographic analysis are presented. The study of the crystal structure of the coin alloy indicates the absence of silver coating of staters minted from low-grade silver.

Descoperiri monetare la Histria – Sectorul Sud (2013–2017) / Monetary discoveries at Histria – South Sector (2013–2017)

În cursul cercetărilor sistematice întreprinse în Sectorul Sud al sitului Histria în perioada 2013– 2017, au fost recoltate 85 de piese monetare, dintre care au fost identificate 68 exemplare (80%). Săpăturile au vizat limita nord‐ vestică a sectorului, corespunzând părții de vest a incintei și compartimentărilor unui important edificiu identificat încă din anii 2011– 2012. Dimensiunile lotului monetar indică o anumită dinamică a prezenței monetare într‐ o zonă probabil intens locuită din Histria romană între a doua jumătate a secolului al II‐ lea p. Chr. şi sfârşitul Tetrarhiei. Datorită restrângerii incintei fortificate şi implicit a suprafeţei urbane în perioada Imperiului târziu, zona fostului edificiu monumental a ajuns în partea extra muros și a fost suprapusă de două niveluri ale necropolei. Cele 68 monede sunt repartizate cronologic după cum urmează : șase exemplare din perioada anterioară stăpânirii romane, 40 monede din perioada Principatului (șapte denari, 18 antoninieni, un sestertius, un dupondius și 13 emisiuni provinciale), 16 monede din perioada romană târzie și șase monede bizantine din secolul al VI‐ lea. Alături de emisiuni deja atestate în descoperirile de la Histria, au fost înregistrate și rarități, precum : o monedă din perioada târzie a autonomiei atelierului istrian, purtând o contramarcă inedită (nr. 6) ; emisiuni istriene puțin cunoscute de la Antoninus Pius și Caracalla (nr. 8 şi 13) respectiv o monedă pseudoautonomă cu legenda ICTPI gravată într‐ un mod neobișnuit (nr. 14) ; 4 assaria de la Nicopolis ad Istrum cu revers de tip încă neatestat pentru perioada când L. Aurelius Gallus a fost guvernator al Moesiei Inferior, mai precis anii 202– 205 (nr. 12) ; unicul antoninian de la Gordian III înregistrat până acum la Histria (nr. 27) ; un antoninian emis de Vabalathus (nr. 38). Structura lotului confirmă în general observațiile anterioare – prilejuite de publicarea în 2014 a unui prim lot de monede – privind prezența monetară în sudul Histriei. Cele mai multe monede au apărut în poziție secundară, neavând semnificație stratigrafică. Excepție fac unele exemplare găsite în dărâmătura zidurilor și pe nivelul de călcare contemporan edificiului cercetat, cel puțin 16 dintre ele putând fi folosite ca repere cronologice. Materialul monetar indică o ipotetică ridicare a marelui edificiu, probabil de utilitate publică, în prima parte a secolului al III‐ lea p. Chr. După o posibilă distrugere prin incendiere în timpul „ războiului scitic”, acesta a fost probabil parţial refăcut, eventual în vremea lui Aurelian sau Probus şi a funcţionat cel puţin până la începutul celui de‐ al doilea deceniu al secolului al IV‐ lea, când a fost devastat definitiv, aparent în cursul unui alt incendiu. Monedele pătrunse sporadic ulterior nu mai reflectă o locuire a zonei, ci sunt de pus în relaţie mai curând cu amenajări funerare din a doua jumătate a secolului al IV‐ lea şi mai târzii. Pentru o imagine generală, este anexată lista completă a descoperirilor monetare de la Histria – Sectorul Sud.

Sailing and Sailing Rigs in the Ancient Mediterranean: implications of continuity, variation and change in propulsion technology

Ships and boats form the foundations of the maritime connectivity that is a central part of our understanding of the ancient Mediterranean. While the general chronological sequence of sail and sailing-rig development is well established, the implications are less-well discussed. This article sets out how sails and sailing rigs developed in antiquity, with emphasis on the Greco-Roman world. Subsequently, instances of innovation are defined. Why specific pieces of maritime technology were, or were not, widely adopted is considered. Long-term technological continuity can be comprehended, and a shared maritime culture of sailing in the ancient Mediterranean is suggested.

Using archaeomagnetism to improve the dating of three sites in Catalonia (NE Spain)

Abstract Archaeomagnetic dating was performed on four archaeological structures in Catalonia (NE Spain) using magnetic inclination and declination values from three reference curves: the Iberian SVC and two curves computed using the regional SCHA.DIF.3k model and the global SHA.DIF.14k. The results provide new data for discussions regarding the dating of three archaeological sites from three very different periods: Roman, Medieval and Modern. In addition, some considerations were made regarding the usefulness of the three reference curves and the corresponding geomagnetic models. The Iberian SVC suggests that a Roman limekiln near Tarragona was last fired during the 1st century BC, but the archaeomagnetic models suggest it was last fired during the 1st century AD, i.e. closer to the date of the kiln infillings (2nd–3rd centuries AD). All three-reference curves date two structures from an archaeological site to the north of Barcelona to the 10th or 11th century AD. These ages match those determined using radiocarbon ages. Dating a modern limekiln near Girona with a presumed age of more than 200 years produced an inconsistent age when using the Iberian SVC, but plausible ages in the 17th or 18th centuries AD using the archaeomagnetic models. This suggests that the Iberian SVC has been superseded by the regional SCHA.DIF.3k model and the global SHA.DIF.14k model, both of which exhibit excellent dating capabilities. Older archaeological sites, including prehistoric sites, should be investigated to fully exploit and verify the potential of the new SHA.DIF.14k archaeomagnetic model.

Reconstructing environments of collection sites from archaeological bivalve shells: Case study from oysters (Lyon, France)

The flat oyster, Ostrea edulis, was consumed as a luxury dish by the Romans in antiquity. Numerous shells are found in archaeological sites in the Lyon region, Central France. This area is located over 250km away from the nearest coastline (the Mediterranean Sea) and little is known about the origin of these oysters prior to transport for consumption. The chemistry of biogenic carbonates reflects that of the fluid they precipitate from at the time of formation. Stable isotopes and Mg/Ca ratios in oyster shells have previously been used as palaeoenvironmental proxies. As Mg/Ca ratio amplitude in bivalve shells has been reported to differ according to local hydrologic settings, we suggest that geochemical differences observed in each shell can be used to identify the type of environment (e.g. estuary, lagoon or marine) from which the specimens originated.In this study, we analyzed the elemental composition of six archaeological O. edulis shells of unknown provenance, collected in the Lyon region dated from the 3rd century AD to the 5th century AD. In addition, stable carbon and oxygen analyses from three of these specimens were performed to reconstruct intra-annual fluctuations of seawater chemistry. Overall results show a strong heterogeneity in values. One shell exhibits large fluctuations in δ13C (from −2 to 1‰) and δ18O (from −2 to 3‰), interpreted as evidence for an estuarine origin. The Mg/Ca amplitude (from 5 to 35mmol·mol−1) also indicates proximity to a river outlet, as such values were previously reported from modern estuarine oyster shells. Two other specimens present a restricted amplitude in Mg/Ca values (from ~0 to 5mmol·mol−1), similar to values measured in modern open marine locations. Four other specimens exhibited intermediate Mg/Ca ratios and more restricted stable isotope composition ranges which indicate that these specimens lived in waters with limited freshwater input.The geochemical data from these shells support the hypothesis that fishermen of Antiquity collected oysters from a variety of environments/locations. A clear identification of the living localities of these specimens is still to be defined, as the present data cannot discriminate whether these shells originated from the Mediterranean Sea or the Atlantic Ocean coastline.

Tunics Worn in Egypt in Roman and Byzantine times: The Greek Vocabulary

The principal element of the fashion in clothing introduced in Egypt with the arrival of the Romans was a tunic made of two rectangular pieces of fabric sewn together. Such a tunic either would leave the arms naked, or cover the arms to the elbow (fig. 1). This fashion changed with the turn of the 2nd and 3rd century AD. At this time, in addition to the tunics without sleeves, the inhabitants of Egypt started to wear tunics with ‘true’ sleeves – long or short, wide or tight – inspired by the Eastern fashion: the manner of making the tunics changed and the decorative motifs became richer. The tunics were woven to shape, either in one piece (fig. 3) or, probably starting from the 5th century AD, were made up of three pieces stitched together (fig. 4). As for the sleeveless tunics, they were also woven in only one piece (fig. 2). In the 6th-7th century AD Egypt, one could see a certain influence of the style probably coming from Sassanid Persia. Amongst other things, this tendency was expressed in tunics with long sleeves, sewn in several pieces (fig. 5). These changes in fashion are reflected in the vocabulary concerning the tunics, as attested in the papyrological documents and in the literary texts. Several Greek terms are employed to indicate tunics in the texts written in Egypt at this time: δελματική, καμίσιον, κολόβιον, λεβίτων, στιχάριον, χιτών. Studies focussing on Egyptian tunics and their vocabulary are dispersed in isolated comments and lexicographical articles, as well as in the publications of objects coming from excavations or collections, and they do not exhaust the subject. It is the aim of this paper to present the evolution of the significance of these terms and their employment in the texts coming from Egypt.

Von der Oase zur antiken Handelsmetropole. Überlegungen zur wirtschaftlichen Rolle und Bedeutung der nahöstlichen Oasenstadt Palmyra im Kontext der römischen Ostexpansion

From an oasis to an ancient trading metropolis. Considerations about the economic role and importance of the middle eastern oasis of Palmyra in the context of the Roman eastward expansion Numerous publications deal with the versatile ancient oasis Palmyra, which has been known long before the destruction campaign of ISIS as ancient caravan city and long-distance trade center of the Middle East. Nevertheless, little work devoted especially on the economic importance of the old Tadmor. Therefore this bachelor thesis tries to examine Palmyras economic development from an simple oasis in the barren steppe region of present-day Syria to a leading commercial metropolis in the context of the Roman expansion between the 1st century BC and the 3rd century AD.

Керамический импорт из Центрального Предкавказья в Танаисе в середине III в. н.э. (по результатам минералого-петрографических исследований)

Керамический импорт из Центрального Предкавказья в Танаисе в середине III в. н.э. (по результатам минералого-петрографических исследований)

Diet and collapse: A stable isotope study of Imperial-era Gabii (1st–3rd centuries AD)

The city of Gabii arose just east of Rome around the 8th century BC. By the Imperial period, it had all but collapsed, its habitation areas either abandoned or repurposed for industrial production. Burials within the city, however, may speak to the urbanization and collapse of Gabii. Twenty-one skeletons from the Imperial era (1st–3rd centuries AD) were analyzed for stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in an effort to understand palaeodiet. Adults' diets are relatively homogeneous, particularly in comparison with samples from nearby sites dating to the same period, and reflect consumption of terrestrial meats and C3 plants. Subadult diets do not reflect breastfeeding at the time of death. One individual with anomalous isotopes may have been an immigrant to Gabii.

Interim report on the Polish–Georgian excavation of a Roman fort in Gonio (Apsaros) in 2014

Archaeological excavations of three sections of the inner areas of the fort of Apsaros were conducted by the Gonio-Apsaros archaeological expedition of the Cultural Heritage Preservation Agency of Adjara in 2014. Remains of several buildings were unearthed in the Roman cultural levels. Artifacts from these layers reflect a Roman presence in the area from the second half of the 1st to the end of the 3rd century AD.

Potential Greek influence on the Vulgar Latin sound change [b] > [β]: Dialectological evidence from inscriptions

This paper intends to investigate Greek influence on the Latin sound change [b] > [β] suggested occasionally in the literature by surveying not only the relevant linguistic data of Latin/Romance and Koine/Modern Greek but also the relevant literature and by involving and analyzing data sets recorded from 18 Roman provinces and the city of Rome in the Computerized Historical Linguistic Database of the Latin Inscriptions of the Imperial Age (cf. http://lldb.elte.hu/) by a more differentiated phonological approach considering external sandhi rules and in a chronological distribution more detailed than any applied before. In the end, the influence of Greek has been evidenced at least for some areas and especially for the early period (1st–3rd century AD), which is more important in this respect than the late period (4th–6th century AD), since then the merger can also be explained by developments in Latin itself beside a supposed external influence.

Crop Fertility Conditions in North-Eastern Gaul During the La Tène and Roman Periods: A Combined Stable Isotope Analysis of Archaeobotanical and Archaeozoological Remains

ABSTRACTConsiderable archaeobotanical datasets describe cereal cultivation in north-eastern France, from the Iron Age to the Roman period. This study aims to complement these by using stable isotope analysis on charred cereal grains. Soil fertility was investigated through δ15N and δ13C analyses of 1480 charred cereal grains, dated from the Late La Tène to the Late Antiquity periods. In the Île-de-France, charred grain Δ13C values suggested good hydric conditions, with drier episodes in the 1st and 3rd century AD; while in Champagne, the lower Δ13C values for spelt reflect the lower water holding capacity of the chalky soils. A wide range of cereal δ15N values (0.8–8.7‰) implies a wide range of soil fertility conditions. Jouars-Pontchartrain and Palaiseau (Île-de-France) yielded the highest cereal δ15N values, whereas Acy-Romance (Champagne) delivered among the lowest. From these three sites, the δ15N values of red deer bone collagen were used to estimate the reference δ15N values for unmanured plants. Unlike in Acy-Romance, there were significant differences in Palaiseau and Jouars-Pontchartrain, indicating that the cultivated cereals inherited their high δ15N values from manured soil. At Jouars-Pontchartrain, the δ15N value (almost 9‰) suggested a high trophic level manuring source, possibly from pig and/or human faeces.

Analysis of Charcoal and Wood from Czarnowko Site (Pomerania Region, Poland): 14C Dating Versus Relative Chronology Show Consistent Evidence of Wielbark Culture Presence

AbstractThis article presents the results of interdisciplinary analysis of samples from the Czarnówko archaeological site in northern Poland, reporting the first radiocarbon dates for the site in comparison with its relative chronology. The site is of high importance because of its scale and opulence of artifacts. It was used for over 900 yr, from the 7th century BC up to the 3rd century AD, by populations of different cultures (the Lusatian, Pomeranian, Oksywie, and Wielbark). Samples of charcoal, wood, and textile were collected from different features, most of them from burials. Charcoal was taken from cremation pits, while wood was sampled from coffins in skeletal burials. Among samples collected during archaeological excavations in 2008 and 2010, 20 were chosen for 14C dating and macro- and microscopic observations. Images taken using a scanning electron microscope revealed the microstructure and preservation level of the specimens. An emphasis was also placed on geomorphological and geological research of the site area to gain information about the environmental conditions influencing the samples’ preservation state, e.g. pH, type, origin and permeability of sediment, and accumulation of organic matter. The obtained calibrated 14C ages are in agreement with the relative chronology based on the typology of artifacts and stratigraphic site reconstructions.

Hosidius Geta Medea-centója

The subject of my paper is Hosidius Geta’s drama, Medea. The Late Latin tragedy retells the well-known Greek myth in Virgilian hexameters. Written in the 3rd century AD, the piece was preserved in the so-called Codex Salmasianus (today Codex Parisianus 10381), a manuscript copied in a monastic scriptorium in the 8th century. Not much is known about its assumed author, Hosidius Geta. Due to the fact that his figure is known from a reference by Tertullian the African, Hosidius might also have lived in Africa. Originally, the name of the genre cento meant a patchwork garment used for covering animals or as defensive armour. Later, the expression was applied to a new method of poetic creation and a particular literary genre, in which new poems were composed of excerpts taken from other authors, especially Virgil. I focus on passages where Medea’s words might have been borrowed from Virgil’s Dido. Most quotations from Dido are put into the mouth of Medea, but Medea’s passages are predominantly composed of other sources. Hosidius’ Medea is related to Seneca’s portrayal: her cruel and destructive nature seems to be conscious, which alienates the reader.

Non-Figural Motifs on the Roman Funerary Stelae from Upper Macedonia (Problems of Date and Interpretation)

Classical archaeology is deeply rooted in collecting works of art, and this is the reason why theearlier scholarly works focused on artefacts of high artistic value, while artefacts with less significant artistic qualities were totally neglected. An obvious example is a group of funeral stelae with non-figural iconography also known as Tikvesh type stelae spread in the valley alongside the middle course of the Axius (Vardar) River,Upper Macedonia. They display very specific motifs in their relief field as well as in the pediment, e.g. humanfigures shaped in evergreen tree forms, grapevines and ivy leaves, and rosettes, or agricultural tools (hook forpicking grapes, pickaxe etc.). They are dated from the 1st to the 4th century AD, the largest number belonging to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. Neglecting the epitaphs and treating the motifs separately and out of context, scholars have reached widely differing interpretations: either that the iconography reveals Celtic beliefs, or that it is Oriental (based on thecults of Men, Attis and Cybele) or that it is Christian and Gnostic, i.e. of Manichean origin. It is worth mentioning that no evidence for such interpretations has ever been found either in written sources, or even in archaeological materials. Dated monuments clearly show that their schematic “naive” styleis determined by the type of local stones (e.g., gneiss, volcanic tuff, andesite), which is unsuitable for polishing,and cannot be an element for chronology. Also these stelae were carved by the locals, who were pretty unskilled craftsmen.Treating the iconographic composition as a whole, taking the epitaphs into consideration as an integral partof the stelae along with the socio-economic, religious and cultural milieu in which they were created, I have concluded that this unusual iconography was used to express heroization (the epithet heros often occurred inepitaphs) of not only the deceased, but also their ancestors, expressed in an original way, typical of the local population.