3D-printed Models Research Articles

3D Modeling of Self-Expandable Valves for PPVI in Distinct RVOT Morphologies.

Tetralogy of Fallot often requires transannular patch repair, leading to pulmonary insufficiency. Percutaneous pulmonary valve implantation (PPVI) with self-expandable valves offers a promising alternative, especially for enlarged right ventricular Queryoutflow tracts (RVOT). Five RVOT types identified in patients with Tetralogy of Fallot reflect anatomical variations due to disease and prior surgeries. This study assesses the Pulsta THV® valve's in vitro hemodynamic performance across these RVOT morphologies using 3D-printed models. Five RVOT morphologies were recreated as 3D models from patient-specific imaging data. The Pulsta THV® valves, available in 28, 30, and 32 mm sizes, were evaluated using the ViVitro Pulse Duplicator System at three cardiac outputs (2, 3.5, and 5 L/min). Hemodynamic performance was assessed by measuring regurgitation rates and pressure gradients in the left and right pulmonary arteries. The Pulsta THV® performed optimally in RVOT Types 1 and 2, demonstrating lower regurgitation rates and pressure gradients, particularly with larger valve sizes. Conversely, RVOT Types 3 and 5 showed increased pressure gradients and hemodynamic variability, indicating less favorable outcomes. The results highlighted the critical role of precise anatomical compatibility, with larger valve sizes proving more effective in enlarged RVOT geometry. Valve sizes tailored to specific RVOT morphologies can enhance PPVI outcomes. Types 1 and 2 are ideal for PPVI, while Types 3 and 5 present challenges due to hemodynamic variability. This study supports 3D modeling and in vitro testing for pre-procedural planning to reduce complications, with future research exploring dynamic imaging and materials mimicking tissue properties.

Introducing 3D printed models of fractures in osteology learning improves clinical reasoning skills among first-year medical students: a pilot study

BackgroundThe human bone anatomy is commonly taught using normal adult bones. However, students often face difficulties comprehending the clinical correlations related to fractures, as they only rely on text content or diagrams without three-dimensional visual aids. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of using 3D-printed models of limb bone fractures in routine osteology classes to enhance the clinical reasoning skills of first-year medical undergraduate students.MethodologyIn this experimental study, 105 first-year medical undergraduate students were divided into intervention and control groups based on their pre-assigned serial numbers. The control group was taught using dry adult human bones, with the teacher explaining clinical correlations verbally. Meanwhile, in two sessions, the intervention group was taught using 3D-printed models of fractures in addition to real bones. At the end of the second session, students were evaluated for their clinical reasoning ability using a case-based MCQ test (maximum score 5). The scores were compared between the two groups using an unpaired t-test. Students of the intervention group were asked to rate their learning experience using a 10-point Likert Scale questionnaire.ResultsThe intervention group scored significantly higher (2.54 ± 1.15) than the control group (2.04 ± 0.94) (p = 0.015). The maximum score for both groups was five, and the minimum was one. Most students agreed that the 3D-printed models helped them understand the fractures’ clinical relevance and provided better orientation to the bones, joints, and structures involved in fractures (92%, n = 46). The students expressed a desire for more similar types of sessions.ConclusionIncorporating 3D-printed models of fractures was a novel approach to help students comprehend the clinical correlations. This strategy improved students’ clinical reasoning skills in the intervention group, as evidenced by their higher scores and feedback. Therefore, 3D-printed models are a valuable addition to the traditional teaching methods of learning osteology.

Utility of surgical simulation for tubular retractor surgery using 3D-printed intraventricular tumor models - Case series.

Utility of surgical simulation for tubular retractor surgery using 3D-printed intraventricular tumor models - Case series.

Accuracy analysis of the digital occlusal relationship reconstruction workflow in patients with maxillofacial fractures: An in vitro retrospective cohort study.

To verify the accuracy of a digital workflow for occlusal relationship reduction in patients with maxillofacial fractures via cone beam computed tomograhy/ computerized tomography (CBCT/CT). We collected CBCT/CT data and oral scan data from both general patients and fracture patients and established digital models. The differences between the oral scan model and the CBCT/CT digital model were compared. 3D-printed dental models were made for general patients, and comparisons were made matching the dental model with the original occlusion. Differences among the postoperative CT digital models of fracture patients, the virtual reconstruction models, and the model surgery reconstructed models were compared. A total of 20 general patients and 27 fracture patients participated in this study. The average error for the segmented CBCT/CT modelling group was 122.90±26.94 μm, whereas the average error for the nonsegmented CBCT/CT modelling group was 84.50±9.21 μm, with a significant difference between the two groups (t = 6.364, P < 0.01). The error in the occlusal relationship between the 3D-printed models and the patient's actual occlusion was 18.35±2.20 μm. The average error for the virtual reconstruction group was 438.89±155.55 μm, whereas it was 857.09±116.55 μm for the model surgery reconstruction group, with a significant difference between the two groups (t = 11.180, P < 0.01). CBCT/CT-based digital dental models can be created with high accuracy. Using 3D-printed models and intercuspal occlusion guidance, the original occlusal relationship can be restored. Compared with model surgery, virtual fracture reconstruction offers superior accuracy. This study demonstrates the feasibility of accurate digital occlusal restoration in fracture patients, providing a new approach for maxillofacial fracture management.

Augmented Reality-Guided Mastoidectomy Simulation: A Randomized Controlled Trial Assessing Surgical Proficiency.

Mastoidectomy surgical training is challenging due to the complex nature of the anatomical structures involved. Traditional training methods based on direct patient care and cadaveric temporal bone training have practical shortcomings. 3D-printed temporal bone models and augmented reality (AR) have emerged as promising solutions, particularly for mastoidectomy surgery, which demands an understanding of intricate anatomical structures. Evidence is needed to explore the potential of AR technology in addressing these training challenges. 21 medical students in their clinical clerkship were recruited for this prospective, randomized controlled trial assessing mastoidectomy skills. The participants were randomly assigned to the AR group, which received real-time guidance during drilling on 3D-printed temporal bone models, or to the control group, which received traditional training methods. Skills were assessed on a modified Welling scale and evaluated independently by two senior otologists. The AR group outperformed the control group, with a mean overall drilling score of 19.5 out of 25, compared with the control group's score of 12 (p < 0.01). The AR group was significantly better at defining mastoidectomy margins (p < 0.01), exposing the antrum, preserving the lateral semicircular canal (p < 0.05), sharpening the sinodural angle (p < 0.01), exposing the tegmen and attic, preserving the ossicles (p < 0.01), and thinning and preserving the external auditory canal (p < 0.05). AR simulation in mastoidectomy, even in a single session, improved the proficiency of novice surgeons compared with traditional methods. NA Laryngoscope, 135:894-900, 2025.

Digital vs. conventional removable complete dentures: A retrospective study on clinical effectiveness and cost-efficiency in edentulous patients: Clinical effectiveness and cost-efficiency analysis of digital dentures.

This study aimed to compare the clinical effectiveness and cost-efficiency of conventional and digital prosthodontic protocols, with a specific focus on milled and 3D-printed digital removable complete dentures. This retrospective clinical study was conducted at the Removable Prosthodontics Department of the University of Siena. 60 patients were divided into two groups: 30 received conventional complete dentures, while the remaining 30 received digital complete dentures (15 milled and 15 3D-printed). Clinical outcomes were assessed using OHIP-14, bite force measurements, and masticatory performance tests before and six months after treatment. Treatment-related metrics, including chairside time, follow-up time, and laboratory costs, were recorded and compared across the groups. Statistical analysis was performed to determine the significance of differences between conventional and digital complete dentures, as well as between milled and 3D-printed digital complete dentures. The study revealed that digital complete dentures significantly reduced chairside time compared to conventional dentures, with average times of 154.31 ± 13.19 min for digital dentures and 218.00 ± 20.75 min for conventional dentures (p < 0.0001). Laboratory costs were found to be statistically lower for digital dentures, (€378.79 ± 137.46 vs. €459.15 ± 63.72, p = 0.0059) compared to conventional dentures. No statistically significant differences were observed in bite force or masticatory performance between the groups. OHIP-14 scores indicated slightly lower patient satisfaction with digital dentures, but the difference was not clinically significant. Digital removable dentures, including both milled and 3D-printed models, offer a practical and efficient alternative to conventional dentures, particularly in terms of reducing chairside time and laboratory costs. Digital removable dentures offer a practical and efficient alternative to conventional dentures, particularly in terms of reducing chairside time and costs. These simplified digital protocols could be applied in residential facilities or within national healthcare programs, improving access to prosthetic care for a larger number of patients.

Effect of Haematococcus pluvialis addition on the rheological property and 3D printing performance of soy protein isolate- and wheat gluten-based pastes.

To improve the 3D printing performance of plant protein-based pastes, varying mass fractions of Haematococcus pluvialis (HP) were mixed with soybean protein isolate (SPI) and wheat gluten (WG). The rheological characteristics, microstructure, water distribution, and 3D printing suitability of the composite pastes were evaluated. Results demonstrated that as the HP additions increased, the apparent viscosity and energy storage modulus decreased, exhibiting ameliorative shear-thinning behavior and elastic deformation capacity. Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance and confocal laser scanning microscopy showed that increasing HP enhanced water mobility and resulted in a more uniform protein structure, improving fluidity. 3D-printed Chinese character and cylindrical models manifested that the paste consisted of pure SPI-WG was hard to be extruded from the nozzle, while both HP (0.7) and HP (1.0) additions were suitable for printing. Notably, when the mass ratio of SPI:WG:HP was 1:1:0.7, the diameter of the extruded strands (0.87mm) was the most closest to the nozzle diameter (0.84mm), and the printed object maintained stability over 80min with height and diameter variations <2%, implying the best printing fidelity. By employing HP as a novel, nutrient-rich additive, this work not only enhanced the printability and nutritional profile of SPI-WG based pastes, but also offered a pioneering framework for developing future customizable, high-quality 3D-printed foods that better address consumer needs. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This research provides a method for improving the 3D printing performance of plant-based pastes by incorporating Haematococcus pluvialis. The findings can be applied in the food industry to develop bio-inks for producing high-quality, nutritionally enhanced 3D-printed foods with better printing precision and stability, supporting the growing demand for personalized nutrition and functional foods.

Evaluation of 3D-printed model geogrids and composite geosynthetics made from recycled plastics: Bridging laboratory insights with field performance

Evaluation of 3D-printed model geogrids and composite geosynthetics made from recycled plastics: Bridging laboratory insights with field performance

3D tlačené syntetické modely určené na tréning minimálne invazívnej detskej chirurgie – vlastné skúsenosti a prehľad literatúry

Pediatric surgery is a medical specialty focused on the diagnosis, treatment, and postoperative care of children with congenital and acquired anomalies and diseases. The goal of pediatric surgeons is to ensure that children receive the best possible care while minimizing the risks and complications associated with surgical procedures. Contemporary pediatric surgeons face many challenges, including a decline in the number of children with congenital developmental defects, economic pressures, and efforts to increase efficiency, leading to reduced time spent on individual surgeries. This can limit the opportunity for thorough training of young surgeons. These challenges require innovative approaches and continuous improvement in educational and training methods. Minimally invasive surgery has become a significant part of pediatric surgery, offering benefits such as faster recovery, smaller surgical wounds, and lower risk of infection. However, minimally invasive pediatric surgery is technically demanding and requires excellent technical skills. The need to maintain and improve surgical skills demands ongoing training. Current educational methods increasingly rely on simulation technologies to enhance the quality and safety of training without risk to patients. The integration of 3D printing technology and imaging data from CT and MRI scans has opened new possibilities for creating highly realistic simulation models for minimally invasive surgery. These models accurately replicate the environment encountered in procedures like neonatal surgery. In this article, we present our experience with the development and creation of 3D-printed synthetic models designed for training thoracoscopic surgery of esophageal atresia with tracheoesophageal fistula. The aim of this review article is to provide an up-to-date overview of the literature on synthetic 3D-printed models designed for training in minimally invasive pediatric surgery.

Labour diagnostics using the intrauterine pressure through sound waves emitted by a smartphone.

Labour commencement diagnosis is still challenging in obstetrics. The majority of scientific techniques that were used to determine labour are costly and require a professional healthcare personnel to be carried out. Hence, in this work, an experiment was conducted using a 3D-printed 50% scale model of the abdomen of an average 40-week pregnant woman. The aim was to test whether the internal pressure can be evaluated from the reflection of the sound waves emitted by a smartphone. Frequencies of 4 kHz and 20 kHz were triggered at multiple distances (0.17, 0.34, 0.51 m) after inflating the 3D-printed model with water. The reflection coefficients and internal pressure were determined to have a positive linear correlation, suggesting that the hypothesis is practical. However, as the distances decreased, the reflection coefficient plateaued, indicating that the material had attained its maximum reflection coefficient at that frequency. Due to its reduced error and non-audible properties as compared to 4Hz, 20 kHz was suggested to be an optimum frequency for measuring pressure, allowing it for pain-free application for an extended amount of time.

Application of three-dimensional printing in the planning and execution of aortic aneurysm repair

IntroductionThe accuracy of fenestrations in stent grafts for complex aortic aneurysms and dissections can be significantly improved using three-dimensional (3D)-printed phantoms. Standardization is enhanced by using artificial intelligence (AI) for image pre-processing before 3D printing. These methods address fallacies in centerline image analysis and manual image pre-processing. This review examines the application of 3D printing and AI in complex aortic aneurysm repair, highlighting current clinical trends.MethodsAn exhaustive literature review was performed using keywords such as “3D printing,” “Artificial intelligence,” “Thoracoabdominal aneurysm,” “Abdominal aortic aneurysm,” “Aortic arch aneurysm,” “Endovascular repair,” and “Open repair” in PubMed and Google Scholar indexes up to June 2022.ResultsThis analysis included seven studies: four focused on 3D-printed phantoms for endovascular repair of various aortic pathologies (aortic arch, thoracoabdominal aorta, juxtarenal and pararenal aorta), one on open thoracoabdominal aneurysm repair using 3D-printed models for graft construction, and two on the use of convolutional neural networks, an AI-based technology, for the pre-processing of aortic computed tomography angiography images.ConclusionThe application of 3D printing and AI-based image pre-processing in the planning of complex aortic aneurysms offers several benefits, including enhanced patient and trainee education, more accurate fenestration placement, reduced surgical time and complications, and decreased surgeon stress.

Innovative Production of 3D-Printed Ceramic Monolithic Catalysts for Oxidation of VOCs by Using Fused Filament Fabrication

In this work, ceramic monolithic catalyst carriers based on zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) were produced using fused filament fabrication (FFF). The active catalyst components were deposited on the resulting carriers using the wet impregnation method. The activity of the prepared monolithic catalysts was evaluated by catalytic oxidation of a mixture of aromatic volatile organic compounds: benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and o-xylene (BTEX). The efficiency of the prepared monolithic catalysts was investigated as a function of the geometry of the monolithic carrier (ZDP, Z, and M) and the chemical composition of the catalytically active component (MnFeOx, MnCuOx, and MnNiOx) during the catalytic oxidation of BTEX compounds. The mechanical stability of the catalyst layer and the dimensional stability of the 3D-printed monolithic catalyst carriers were investigated prior to the kinetic measurements. In addition, thorough characterization of the commercial ZrO2-based filament was carried out. The results of the efficiency of the prepared monolithic catalysts for the catalytic oxidation of BTEX showed that the 3D-printed model M, which contained MnFeOx as the catalytically active component, was the most successful catalyst for the oxidation of BTEX compounds. The mentioned catalyst enables the catalytic oxidation of all components of the BTEX mixture (&gt;99% efficiency) at a temperature of 177 °C.

Development of a 3D-Printed Wistar Rat Model From Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) Data for Medical Education and Research Applications

Development of a 3D-Printed Wistar Rat Model From Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) Data for Medical Education and Research Applications

Development of Three-Dimensional Anatomical Models of Dogs with Congenital Extrahepatic Portosystemic Shunts

The aim of this study was to develop three-dimensional anatomical models of dogs with congenital extrahepatic portosystemic shunts (CEPSs) using 3D printing, as well as to detail their development process and compare the final models to volume rendering (VR) derived from computed tomography (CT) scans. CT scans in the Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) format of two canine patients were used—one with splenocaval deviation and the other with right gastrocaval deviation. The images were segmented using 3DSlicer software, generating 3D files in Standard Tessellation Language (STL) format, which were then subjected to refinement and mesh adjustment using Blender software. The models were printed on a J750™ Digital Anatomy™ printer, followed by post-processing in a 2% sodium hydroxide solution for 72 h, with subsequent rinsing to remove support resin residues. The printed models showed colored anatomical structures, including the liver; spleen; kidneys; part of the arterial, venous, and portal circulations; and CEPSs. For comparison purposes, VR of the scans was recreated in the RadiAnt DICOM Viewer software. Despite some limitations of the segmentation software, the 3D-printed models effectively represented the anatomy of the patients and the CEPSs, demonstrating good equivalence to the VR.

Transfer accuracy of partially enclosed single hard vacuum-formed trays with 3D-printed models for lingual bracket indirect bonding: A prospective in-vivo study.

This study aims to evaluate the clinical transfer accuracy of partially enclosed single hard vacuum-formed trays based on three-dimensional (3D) printed models for lingual bracket indirect bonding. Thirty-two consecutive patients receiving lingual orthodontic treatment were enrolled. Digital models with ideal bracket positions were 3D-printed, followed by fabrication of partially enclosed single hard vacuum-formed trays. Digital impressions captured actual bracket positions and were compared to the ideal positions. One-tailed t-tests assessed if errors were within clinically acceptable thresholds of 0.5 mm for linear measurements and 2° for angular measurements. Mean bracket transfer errors were 0.052 mm, 0.076 mm, 0.106 mm, 0.795°, 1.344°, and 2.485° for mesiodistal, buccolingual, occlusogingival, rotation, tip, and torque, respectively. Transfer errors were statistically below the clinically acceptable thresholds for all dimensions except torque. Frequencies of acceptable transfer errors were 100%, 100%, 99.3%, 93.1%, 78.3%, and 54.0%, respectively. Partially enclosed single hard vacuum-formed trays with 3D-printed models transfer lingual brackets with high accuracy in the mesiodistal, buccolingual, and occlusogingival dimensions, rotation, and tip. However, the transfer of torque remains questionable.

Model of the Venous System for Training Endovascular Treatment in Interventional Neuroradiology

Background: Endovascular treatment of venous disease is introducing new therapeutic options in neuroradiology. These procedures are technically challenging and require extensive physician training. Currently, training is mainly conducted on animal models, which presents drawbacks such as ethical concerns and anatomical differences from human vascular architecture. There is no training model that simulates treating intracranial venous disease using original instruments in a real angiography suite. Methods: This work presents the development of a venous system model for endovascular training simulations for integration into the existing Hamburg ANatomical NEurointerventional Simulator (HANNES) for arterial interventions. Results: The manufacturing process established at HANNES and the material used for the arterial vascular models were successfully transferred to the larger 3D-printed vein models. The application test was conducted in a real angiography suite with original instruments by an experienced neurointerventional physician to evaluate the system in terms of geometric mapping, flow, haptics and probing. Conclusion: This newly developed model provides a first approach to simulate an endovascular intervention in the venous system within the HANNES environment. Future expansions might include specific treatment simulations for conditions such as arteriovenous malformations, dural arteriovenous fistulas, sinus vein thrombosis and hydrocephalus.

IMPACT OF 3D-PRINTED MODELS FOR SURGICAL PLANNING IN RENAL CELL CARCINOMA WITH VENOUS TUMOR THROMBUS. A RANDOMISED MULTICENTER CLINICAL TRIAL.

To determine whether surgical planning based on 3D models allows for better surgical outcomes than conventional surgical planning in terms of 1) complications, 2) surgical time, and 3) hospital stay. This multicenter clinical trial (NCT03738488) included 66 patients diagnosed with renal cell carcinoma and venous thrombus extension who underwent nephrectomy with thrombectomy. Patients were randomized 1:1 to: 1) surgical planning with conventional images (control group) and 2) surgical planning with 3D-printed models (experimental group). We compared the surgical outcomes of each group in terms of 1) complications, 2) surgical time and 3) hospital stay. The mean surgical time and the mean hospital stay was similar between the groups, although there were more patients with no ICU stay in the 3D group 17 (52%) than in the image group (OR: 3.32 (1.16-9.48)) . There were more patients without any complications in the 3D group (n=18) (OR: 5,40 (1,16-16,53), and among those with complications, there were more severe in the imaging group (n=16) (OR: 20,46 (2,33-178,20)). Surgical planning with 3D printing in renal cell carcinoma and venous thrombus extension compared to conventional planning showed a lower ratio of postoperative complications that helped decrease the ICU stay.

Teaching of the subject ‘Biomolecules in Living Organisms’ using 3D printing models

Abstract In recent years, 3D printing technology or 3D printing models have become a powerful educational tool used in many fields such as medicine, engineering and science. However, research on the integration of these technologies into formal educational environments and the researches examining their effect on students’ learning biology is quite limited. The aim of this study is to examine the effect of using 3D printing models on students’ learning the subject ‘Biomolecules in Living Organisms’. In the study, the students were also interviewed, and the usefulness of 3D printing models was evaluated. For this aim, a quasi-experimental design was used in the study. The study group consisted of 61 ninth grade students (37 females, 24 males), 32 students in the control group and 29 students in the experimental group, attending a public high school during the academic year 2023–2024. The findings indicated that the achievement levels of the students in the experimental group (3D printing models) were statistically higher than those in the control groups (non-3D printing models) after a 9-week instruction. The findings also indicated that there is a statistically important difference in students’ scores on retention tests in favour of the experimental group. Similarly, as a result of student interviews, it was determined that 3D models were evaluated by most of the students as materials that were interesting, arousing curiosity, increased the memorability of information, concretized the subject and facilitated learning. Despite these positive effects of 3D printing models on learning, some limitations, such as small sample selection, reduced the generalizability of the study results. Considering these limitations, some suggestions for future research were made.

Effect of ultrasonically-activated irrigation protocols used for regenerative endodontics on removal of dual species biofilm in a three-dimensionally printed tooth model: in vitro study

IntroductionEradication of residual biofilm from root canal dentine is critical for the success of regenerative endodontic procedures (REPs).The aim of the studyTo evaluate the influence of ultrasonically activated irrigants in concentrations used for REPs for removal of dual-species biofilm from three-dimensionally printed tooth models with attached dentine samples.MethodologySeventy-two three-dimensionally printed teeth models were fabricated with a standardized slot in the apical third of the root to ensure a precise fit with a human root dentine specimen. Dual-species biofilms (comprising Enterococcus faecalis and Streptococcus mutans) were cultivated in the root canal for a period of three weeks. Models with dentine specimens were randomly assigned into 5 groups according to the irrigation protocol; G1(dis H2O): infected root canals irrigated with distilled water to serve as controls; G2(1.5% NaOCl): 1.5% NaOCl for five minutes; G3(1.5% NaOCl + PUI): 1.5% NaOCl + passive ultrasonic irrigation (PUI) for 30 s; G4(3% NaOCl): 3% NaOCl for five minutes; G5(3% NaOCl + PUI): 3% NaOCl + PUI for 30 s. Bacterial reduction was determined by colony-forming unit (CFU) counting (n = 12/G), whilst biofilms were analyzed using field emission scanning electron microscopy in additional samples.ResultsThe four experimental groups showed a significant reduction in CFU counts compared to the control group (p < 0.05). When compared with (dis H2O), the highest reduction in bacterial count was obtained in G5 (3% NaOCl + PUI) followed by G4 (3% NaOCl), then G3 (1.5% NaOCl + PUI), and finally G2 (1.5% NaOCl).ConclusionResults of the current study propose that a 3D-printed mature tooth model can be effectively used to analyze the antimicrobial effects of different irrigation protocols on dual-species biofilm. The use of NaOCl in concentrations used for regenerative endodontics can effectively remove bacterial biofilms. Furthermore, the use of PUI did not significantly enhance antibacterial effects of NaOCl.

Evaluating the value of 3D-printed bone models with fracture fragments connected by flexible rods for training and preoperative planning

BackgroundThe emergence of 3D printing has revolutionized medical training and preoperative planning. However, existing models have limitations, prompting the development of newly designed flexible 3D-printed bone fracture models.MethodsThe designed flexible 3D-printed bone fracture models were evaluated by 133 trauma surgeons with different levels of experience for perceived value as educational tool or as preoperative planning tool.ResultsThe models allowed drilling and showed resistance to manipulation and sterilization. Surgeons found the flexible model helpful for teaching and planning the reduction of fractures, planning and simulating osteosynthesis, understanding fractures, visualizing fractures, and planning surgical approaches.ConclusionsFlexible 3D-printed bone fracture models offer a dynamic and realistic approach to understanding complex fractures, potentially improving surgical training and preoperative planning.