3D Gravity Modelling Research Articles

3D gravity modelling reveals off-axis crustal thickness variations along the western Gakkel Ridge (Arctic Ocean)

Near-orthogonal ultra-slow (13.3mmyr−1 to 6.5mmyr−1) sea floor spreading in the absence of large transform faults make the Arctic Gakkel Ridge ideally suited for the study of magmatic processes. To enable this, we generated a three-dimensional gravity model of crustal thickness over the ridge and parts of the adjacent Nansen and Amundsen basins west of 65° E. The model shows that oceanic crust accreted prior to chrons C5/C6 is generally very thin (1–3km). Magnetic anomalies over this thin crust are highly variable both parallel and perpendicular to the ridge axis. This is the result of amagmatic or weakly volcanic spreading that started with the opening of the basins 56Ma ago. The separation of Greenland from Svalbard at chron C5/C6 led to the inflow of North Atlantic mantle into the western Eurasia Basin leading to a change in the mantle convection system and the establishment of a magmatic dichotomy along the Gakkel Ridge. Robust magmatism was established in the Western Volcanic Zone (6° 30′ W–3° 30′ E), leading to creation of a 6.6km thick igneous crust, characterized by a strong positive axial magnetic anomaly, numerous volcanic cones, and widespread thick mid-ocean ridge basalts. The transition to the neighbouring Sparsely Magmatic (3° 30′ E–29° E) and Eastern Volcanic (29° E–85° E) zones is sharp. Peridotites cover the central valley and the inner rift flanks, the central magnetic anomaly vanishes and crustal thickness decreases to 1–4km. Transverse basement ridges, extending for as much as 100km into the adjacent basins, intersect the central valley. Although partly of tectonic origin, the transverse ridges are also an expression of long-living magmatic centres, as revealed by increased magnetic anomaly intensities and local thickening of the crust to values as great as 5.9km.

Crustal structure and rift tectonics across the Cauvery–Palar basin, Eastern Continental Margin of India based on seismic and potential field modelling

The Cauvery–Palar basin is a major peri-cratonic rift basin located along the Eastern Continental Margin of India (ECMI) that had formed during the rift-drift events associated with the breakup of eastern Gondwanaland (mainly India–Sri Lanka–East Antarctica). In the present study, we carry out an integrated analysis of the potential field data across the basin to understand the crustal structure and the associated rift tectonics. The composite-magnetic anomaly map of the basin clearly shows the onshore-to-offshore structural continuity, and presence of several high-low trends related to either intrusive rocks or the faults. The Curie depth estimated from the spectral analysis of offshore magnetic anomaly data gave rise to 23 km in the offshore Cauvery–Palar basin. The 2D gravity and magnetic crustal models indicate several crustal blocks separated by major structures or faults, and the rift-related volcanic intrusive rocks that characterize the basin. The crustal models further reveal that the crust below southeast Indian shield margin is ∼36 km thick and thins down to as much as 13–16 km in the Ocean Continent Transition (OCT) region and increases to around 19–21 km towards deep oceanic areas of the basin. The faulted Moho geometry with maximum stretching in the Cauvery basin indicates shearing or low angle rifting at the time of breakup between India–Sri Lanka and the East Antarctica. However, the additional stretching observed in the Cauvery basin region could be ascribed to the subsequent rifting of Sri Lanka from India. The abnormal thinning of crust at the OCT is interpreted as the probable zone of emplaced Proto-Oceanic Crust (POC) rocks during the breakup. The derived crustal structure along with other geophysical data further reiterates sheared nature of the southern part of the ECMI.

Gravity and magnetic constraints on the Jurassic opening of the oceanic Gulf of Mexico and the location and tectonic history of the Western Main transform fault along the eastern continental margin of Mexico

Although the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) has been the subject of geophysical and geologic studies for several decades, its crustal structures and opening kinematics remain poorly understood largely because of the difficulty in imaging the deeper basinal structure beneath its thick sedimentary and evaporitic layers. We have used gravity and magnetic data combined with seismic reflection and refraction data to better understand the crustal structure and basin opening kinematics. We have focused on the 700-km-long Jurassic continent/ocean transform fault that accommodated counterclockwise rotation of the Yucatan Block along the eastern continental margin of Mexico. We have used recent satellite-derived gravity data to reveal the pattern of spreading ridge-transform segments in the center of the basin. We then derived on a pole of rotation that revealed the kinematics of early opening of the GOM basin and the tectonic control the continent-ocean transform fault, the Western Main Transform fault (WMTF), that defined the continent-ocean boundary (COB) between continental rocks in the eastern Mexico and Jurassic oceanic crust in the western GOM. Regional magnetic anomaly data along with seismic reflection and refraction data were used to further constrain the location of the WMTF. Three 2D gravity models revealed the location of the WMTF approximately 100 km offshore eastern Mexico at its furthest point and extending onshore in southern Mexico. The gravity models found that the contact between continental and oceanic crust is marked by an abrupt increase from 6.5 to 10 km in crustal thickness. To the west of the WMTF, the eastern Mexico margin is underlain by a 60-km-wide zone of stretched continental crust. We also determined a COB for the entire GOM that was consistent with the plate reconstruction, values of crustal thickness based on seismic refraction, and fracture zone azimuths related to the Jurassic spreading system.

3D Gravity Modeling of Complex Salt Features in the Southern Gulf of Mexico

We present a three-dimensional (3D) gravity modeling and inversion approach and its application to complex geological settings characterized by several allochthonous salt bodies embedded in terrigenous sediments. Synthetic gravity data were computed for 3D forward modeling of salt bodies interpreted from Prestack Depth Migration (PSDM) seismic images. Density contrasts for the salt bodies surrounded by sedimentary units are derived from density-compaction curves for the northern Gulf of Mexico’s oil exploration surveys. By integrating results from different shape- and depth-source estimation algorithms, we built an initial model for the gravity anomaly inversion. We then applied a numerically optimized 3D simulated annealing gravity inversion method. The inverted 3D density model successfully retrieves the synthetic salt body ensemble. Results highlight the significance of integrating high-resolution potential field data for salt and subsalt imaging in oil exploration.

GRAVITY ANOMALIES OF THE CRUST AND UPPER MANTLE FOR CENTRAL AND SOUTH ASIA

GRAVITY ANOMALIES OF THE CRUST AND UPPER MANTLE FOR CENTRAL AND SOUTH ASIA

Deep structure of the Argentine margin inferred from 3D gravity and temperature modelling, Colorado Basin

Following previous work on the Colorado Basin using a 3D crustal structural model, we now investigate the presence of lower crustal bodies at the base of the crust using 3D lithospheric gravity modelling and calculations of the conductive thermal field.Our first study highlighted two fault directions and depocentres associated with thinned crust (NW–SE in the West and NE–SW at the distal margin). Fault relative chronology argues for two periods of extension: (1) NW–SE faulting and thinning in the western Colorado Basin and (2) NE–SW faulting and thinning related to the continental breakup and formation of the NE–SW-striking volcanic margins of the Atlantic Ocean.In this study, the geometry of modelled high-density Lower Crustal Bodies (LCBs) enables the reproduction of the gravimetric field as well as of the temperature measured in wells down to 4500m. The modelled LCBs correlate with geological observations: (1) NW–SE LCBs below the deepest depocentres in the West, (2) NE–SW LCBs below the distal margin faults and the seaward dipping reflectors. Thus the proposed poly-phased evolution of the margin could as well correspond to two emplacement phases of the LCBs. The calculated conductive thermal field fits the measured temperatures best if the thermal properties (thermal conductivity and radiogenic heat production) assigned to the LCBs correspond to either high-grade metamorphic rocks or to mafic magmatic intrusions. To explain the possible lithology of the LCBs, we propose that the two successive phases of extension are accompanied by magma supply, emplaced (1) in the thinnest crust below the older NW–SE depocentres, then (2) along the NE–SW continentward boundary of the distal margin and below the volcanic seaward dipping reflectors. The South African conjugate margin records only the second NE–SW event and we discuss hypotheses which could explain these differences between the conjugate margins.

Gravitational attraction of a vertical pyramid model of flat top-and-bottom with depth-wise parabolic density variation

In 3D gravity modelling, right rectangular vertical prism model with linear and nonlinear density and polyhedral bodies with linear density variation exist in geophysical literature. Here, we propose a vertical pyramid model with depth-wise parabolic density contrast variation. Initially, we validate our analytic expression against the gravity effect of a right rectangular parallelepiped of constant density contrast. We provide two synthetic examples and a case study for illustrating the effectiveness of our pyramid model in gravity modelling. The included case study of Los Angeles basin, California demonstrates the comparative advantages of our pyramid model over a conventional right rectangular vertical prism model. Our pyramid model could be quite effective as a building block for evaluating the gravity effect of an arbitrarily-shaped 3D or 2.5-D source(s).

3D gravity and magnetic modeling - its past and future contribution to understanding the geology of Australia Minerals keynote paper

Geoscience Australia (a.k.a. BMR and AGSO) pioneered the acquisition of regional gravity and magnetic data to aid geological mapping. These data revealed for the first time the extent and nature of the major tectonic elements of the Australian continent. In the 1980's, airborne survey and major exploration companies extended this concept to higher resolution at the province scale, further bringing the geology into focus. Qualitative interpretation of this type of information in 2D plan view has proved invaluable. Thoughts turned to 3D modeling and interpretation. Despite an array of software tools to perform the modeling, we are yet to feel that it has really met expectations. As we move into the future, the grand challenge for us all will be to inject more geological knowledge (prior information) into the modeling. Technology in the form of better geophysical data acquisition capabilities, improved software tools, High Performance Computing facilities, and novel ways to integrate interpretations and visualize 3D spaces will all contribute to the solution. However, user input will remain the key ingredient for success. Injecting geological knowledge into the modeling process and understanding the results that modeling provides will enable us to reveal more detail of the 3D subsurface structure and to identify and manage the resources that are hidden therein.

Gravitational Attraction of a Vertical Pyramid Model of Flat Top and Bottom with Depth-Wise Linear Density Variation

In 3D gravity modelling, a right rectangular parallelepiped with either constant density or variable density functions in spatial and spectral domains enjoys wide popularity. However, better unit models are needed to meet the large variety of geological scenarios. Here, we present an analytical expression for the gravity effect of a vertical pyramid model with depthwise linear density variation. Initially, we validate our analytic expression against the gravity effect of a right rectangular parallelepiped and provide two synthetic examples and a case study for illustrating the effectiveness of our pyramid model in gravity modelling. The included case study of Los Angeles basin, California, USA, demonstrates the comparative advantages of our pyramid model over the conventional right rectangular vertical prism model. Thus, our pyramid model could be quiet effective as a building block for evaluating the gravity effect of an arbitrarily-shaped 3D or 2.5D source(s).

Integration of seismic and gravity data — A case study from the western Gulf of Mexico

A 3D gravity model was developed in the western Gulf of Mexico in the East Breaks and Alaminos Canyon protraction areas. This model integrated 3D seismic, gravity, and well data; it was constructed in support of a proprietary seismic reprocessing project and was updated iteratively with seismic. The gravity model was built from seismic horizons of the bathymetry, salt layers, and the acoustic basement; however, the latter was only possible to map in seismic data during the latest iterations. In addition, a deep layer representing the Moho boundary was derived from gravity and constrained by public-domain refraction data. A 3D density distribution was derived from the seismic velocity volume using a modified Gardner equation. The modification comprised imposing a depth dependency on the Gardner coefficient, which is constant in the classic Gardner equation. The modified coefficient was derived from well data in the study area and public-domain velocity-density data sets. The forward-calculated gravity response of the composed density model was then compared with the observed gravity field, and the mismatch was analyzed jointly by a seismic interpreter and a gravity modeler. Adjustments were then made to the gravity model to ensure that the resultant salt model was geologically reasonable and supported by gravity, seismic, and well data sets. The output of the gravity modeling was subsequently applied to the next phase of seismic processing. Overall, this integration resulted in a more robust salt model, which has led to significant improvements in subsalt seismic imaging. The analysis of the regional trend in the observed gravity field suggested that a stretched continental crust underlay our seismic reprocessing area, with an oceanic-continental transition zone located to the southeast of our reprocessing region.

Modelado gravimétrico de una sección entre el margen continental del sudeste de Brasil y el área emergida adyacente

This study was conducted in a gravimetric section between the continental margin and the onshore area of southeastern Brazil, encompassing the northern portion of the Santos Basin and the Neoproterozoic Brasilia and Ribeira mobile belts. Free-Air gravimetric terrestrial and satellite data have been fixed and calculated for Free-Air anomaly and used as the basis for the 2D gravity modeling. Constraints imposed to the 2D gravity model were based on magnetotelluric model 2D inversion for the terrestrial part of the section and model of joint inversion and 2D seismic reflection migrated in time for the Santos Basin. Residual data were calculated from the Free-Air anomaly subtracted from the regional field and were used to associate the shallow part of the model to the geophysical models. In the area of the continental margin, crustal and lithospheric thinning was observed below shallow shelf and in the proximal part of the Santos Basin. Gravity data of the regional field were calculated from a polynomial fit to most Free-Air anomaly data were used to model and fix the lower crust and lithospheric mantle. The fit of the model to regional data was done only it was infered keels at the base of the lithosphere, interpreted as subducted paleoplates situated below suture zones in Brasilia and Ribeira belts. This model fits the observed gravity data with error less than 8% of the total gradient.

New evidence on the geologic setting of Medjerda Valley plain (northern Tunisia) from integrated geophysical study of Triassic evaporite bodies

<p>Integrated gravity, two dimensional (2D) seismic and field data (lithostratigraphy and tectonic deformations) help to understand the structural setting of the Triassic evaporites in the Atlas Mountains of northern Tunisia. In the Medjerda Valley plain, Triassic outcrops are bounded by NE-, ENE-, and NW-trending faults. These faults have been reactivated and have controlled the basin framework. The gravity analysis included the construction of a gravity anomaly maps, and 2D gravity model. Corresponding gravity responses of the complete Bouguer anomaly, the residual gravity anomaly, and upward continued maps reveal that the Triassic evaporites do not have a neat gravity signature. 2D seismic profiles show rising structures of Triassic strata associated with Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectonic edifices. The seismic horizons, calibrated to outcrop and well data, reveal paleohighs and diapirs of Triassic strata that were existed during the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous. These structural features induced a lateral outpouring of evaporitic strata within Late Cretaceous strata. A NW–SE-trending gravity model, which crosses the Medjerda Valley plain, highlights geometry identified on seismic lines. In the Medjerda plain, Mesozoic extensional and transtensional movements were associated with rising of Triassic evaporites, thus resulting in diapiric structures. The Late Cretaceous-Eocene structural setting was marked by outpouring of locally extruded Triassic evaporites. The Tertiary and Quaternary times are marked by major contractional events, causing inversion of pre-existing tectonic edifices. This integrated geophysical study provides a greater understanding of the Thibar deep structure, and a new geometry model of the Triassic evaporite bodies in the North Tunisia.</p>

Underground contour (UGC) mapping using potential field, well log and comparing with seismic interpretation in Lavarestan area

Coastal Fars gravimetry project in Fars province was carried out to find the buried salt domes and to determine characteristics of faults in this area. The Lavarestan structure was covered by 4203 gravimetry stations in a regular grid of 1000*250 m. Depth structural model of this anticline made in previous studies was based on geological evidences and structural geology measurements. In order to have a complete coverage of Lavarestan anticline, 4 profiles with appropriate intervals were selected on gravity data for further processing and interpretation. 2D inverse modeling was performed on these profiles using Encome Modelvision and Encome PA software. Geometrical and physical parameters of each layer were changed step by step and forward gravity calculations were repeated until we reached a desirable fitting between observed and calculated gravity anomaly. The results of 2D gravity modeling were focused on Lower Paleozoic and Kazerun (cap rock) top horizon, also the underground contour map was extracted from seismic data after interpretation. The results show appropriate correlation between the underground contour map of 2D gravity modeling and interpretation of seismic data.

Gravity inversion and uncertainty assessment of basement relief via Particle Swarm Optimization

Gravity inversion is a classical tool in applied geophysics that corresponds, both, to a linear (density unknown) or nonlinear (geometry unknown) inverse problem depending on the model parameters. Inversion of basement relief of sedimentary basins is an important application among the nonlinear techniques. A common way to approach this problem consists in discretizing the basin using polygons (or other geometries), and iteratively solving the nonlinear inverse problem by local optimization. Nevertheless, this kind of approach is highly dependent of the prior information that is used and lacks from a correct solution appraisal (nonlinear uncertainty analysis). In this paper, we present the application of a full family Particle Swarm Optimizers (PSO) to the 2D gravity inversion and model appraisal (uncertainty assessment) of basement relief in sedimentary basins. The application of these algorithms to synthetic and real cases (a gravimetric profile from Atacama Desert in north Chile) shows that it is possible to perform a fast inversion and uncertainty assessment of the gravimetric model using a sampling while optimizing procedure. Besides, the parameters of these exploratory PSO optimizers are automatically tuned and selected based on stability criteria. We also show that the result is robust to the presence of noise in data. The fact that these algorithms do not require large computational resources makes them very attractive to solve this kind of gravity inversion problems.

Rift processes in the Westralian Superbasin, North West Shelf, Australia: insights from 2D deep reflection seismic interpretation and potential fields modelling

Acquisition of long-offset (8–10 km), long-record length (12–18 sec), 2D reflection seismic and ship-borne potential fields data (WestraliaSpan by Ion/GXT and New Dawn by PGS) on the North West Shelf of Australia provide the opportunity to study rift processes in the context of modern models for rifted margins (Manatschal, 2004). Basement and Moho surfaces were interpreted on seismic reflection data. Refraction models from Geoscience Australia constrain Moho depth and initial densities for gravity modelling through standard velocity-density transformation. 2D joint inversion of seismic reflection and gravity data for Moho depth and basement density constrain depth to basement on seismic. 2D gravity and magnetic intensity forward modelling of key seismic lines constrain basement thickness, type and density. Late Permian and Jurassic-Early Cretaceous rift zones were mapped on seismic reflection data and constrained further by inversion and forward modelling of potential fields data. The Westralian Superbasin formed as a marginal basin in Eastern Gondwana during the Late Permian rifting of the Sibumasu terrane. Crustal necking was localised along mechanically-weak Proterozoic suture belts or Early Paleozoic sedimentary basins (such as Paterson and Canning). Mechanically-strong cratons (such as Pilbara and Kimberley) remained intact, resulting in necking and hyper-extension at their edges. Late Permian hyper-extended areas (such as Exmouth Plateau) behaved as mechanically-strong blocks during the Jurassic to Early Cretaceous continental break-up. Late Permian necking zones were reactivated as failed-rift basins and localised the deposition of the Jurassic oil-prone source rocks that have generated much of the oil discovered on the North West Shelf.

Assessment of the isostatic state and the load distribution of the European Molasse basin by means of lithospheric-scale 3D structural and 3D gravity modelling

The European Molasse basin is a foreland basin situated at the northern front of the European Alps and has formed as a consequence of the Euro–Adriatic continental collision since the Tertiary. Today, it is underlain by Mesozoic sedimentary successions on top of a Paleozoic crust. To investigate the deep structure, the isostatic state, as well as the load distribution in the basin and the adjacent Alpine area, we constructed a lithospheric-scale 3D structural model by implementing available surface, well and seismic data. Subsequently, the structure of the model was constrained by means of 3D gravity modelling. Complementary, the isostatic state has been assessed based on the calculation of the 3D load distribution. Our results show that the Molasse basin is not in isostatic equilibrium and that the gravity field of the area is strongly controlled by the configuration of the crystalline crust. Furthermore, we show that the area is influenced by significant lateral load variations down to a depth of −150 km, which are considerably larger than commonly assumed for this level. Furthermore, our results allow a first-order assessment of the minimum compensating horizontal stress required to prevent gravitational collapse.

An alternative derivation of the minimal massive 3D gravity

By using the algebra of exterior forms and the first order formalism with constraints, an alternative derivation of the field equations for the minimal massive 3D gravity model is presented.

3D gravity modeling of a salt structure associated to the Trozza–Labaied lineament (Central Tunisia) constrained by seismic and borehole data

Gravity and seismic are two distinctive geophysical methods which are used combined in integrated geophysical studies. The rationale behind this integration is to construct a 3D gravity model for a salt structure associated to the Trozza–Labaied major tectonic deformation.The Trozza–Labaied area witnessed the occurrence of several tectonic events during the Atlassic phase resulting in the creation of various salt structures. Interpretation of the available seismic data revealed the different lithological units forming the geologic setting. Whereas the analysis of the gravity data contributed in exposing the existence of different gravity anomalies. Thus, the integrated seismic and gravity data are fundamental in constructing a 3D gravity model. The resulting model provides an accurate image of the salt body extent and its geometry and determines its effect over the surrounding sedimentary deposits.

Building up of a nested granite intrusion: magnetic fabric, gravity modelling and fluid inclusion planes studies in Santa Eulália Plutonic Complex (Ossa Morena Zone, Portugal)

AbstractThe Santa Eulália Plutonic Complex (SEPC), located in the Ossa Morena Zone (south Portugal), is composed of a medium- to coarse-grained pink granite (G0-type) and a central grey medium-grained biotite granite (G1-type). Available Rb–Sr data indicates an age of 290 Ma. An emplacement model for the SEPC is proposed, taking into account magnetic fabric, 2D gravity modelling and fluid inclusion planes studies. The G0 and G1 types demonstrate different magnetic behaviour: G0 is considered a magnetite-type granite and G1 is an ilmenite-type granite. The formation of G0 required oxidized conditions related to the interaction of mafic rocks with a felsic magma. The 2D gravity modelling and subvertical magnetic lineations show that the feeder zone of the SEPC is located in the eastern part of the pluton, confirming the role of the Assumar and Messejana Variscan faults in the process of ascent and emplacement. The magma emplacement was controlled by ENE–WSW planar anisotropies related to the final brittle stages of the Variscan Orogeny. The emplacement of the two granites was almost synchronous as shown by their gradational contacts in the field. The magnetic fabric however suggests emplacement of the G0-type first, closely followed by emplacement of the G1-type, pushing the G0 laterally which becomes more anisotropic towards the margin. The G1-type became flattened, acquiring a dome-like structure. The SEPC is a nested pluton with G0-type granite assuming a tabular flat shape and G1-type forming a rooted dome-like structure. After emplacement, SEPC recorded increments of the late Variscan stress field documented by fluid inclusion planes in quartz.

Structural framework of the Jaibaras Rift, Brazil, based on geophysical data

The Cambro-Ordovician Jaibaras Rift is a NE–SW trending elongated feature, controlled by the Transbrasiliano lineament, locally known as Sobral-Pedro II shear zone (SPIISZ). An integrated study of geophysical data (gammaspectrometry, magnetometry and gravimetry) was undertaken in the Jaibaras Rift area, between Ceará Central (CCD) and Médio Coreaú domains (MCD), northwest Borborema Province. Geophysical data were interpreted qualitatively and quantitatively in order to understand the tectono-magmatic relations and rift formation based on the main geophysical lineaments, source geometry and depth, and separation of geophysical domains. In addition, a 2D gravity model was generated. The results show a structural partition characterized by NE–SW lineaments and E–W inflexions, where CCD presents a relatively mild magnetic field, whilst the MCD field is more disturbed. The Jaibaras Rift is characterized by positive magnetic and gravity anomalies. The SPIISZ, which corresponds to the SE fault edge of the Jaibaras Rift, is marked by strong magnetic dipoles and strong gravity gradients in the profile, showing the deep character of the Transbrasiliano lineament in the region. The Café-Ipueiras fault, at the NW edge of the rift, is well marked in gravity profiles, but displays low contrast of the magnetic field. Interpretation of the gravimetric anomaly map allowed to recognizing the main NE–SW axis, with alternation of maxima and minima in MCD. A regional gravity gradient reveals significant lateral density variation between the MCD and CCD perpendicular to the SPIISZ, emphasizing it as a main continental suture zone between crustal blocks.