3D Face Scans Research Articles

Facial and dental arch shape in individuals with different bite force levels : A pilot study using geometric morphometrics.

This pilot study aimed to assess the relationship between bite force variation and dental arch and facial shape using geometric morphometrics, an advanced method of statistical analysis that provides adetailed shape analysis of astructure considering the spatial relationship of its parts. The sample consisted of 16German adult men and women. For each individual, maximum bite force was recorded in four positions: maximum intercuspation, protrusion, laterotrusion to the right and to the left. Facial and three-dimensional (3D) dental reconstructions were obtained from 3D facial photographs and 3D scans of dental stone models. Atotal of 51landmarks were placed. General shape variation was assessed by principal component analysis. Partial least squares analyses were performed to evaluate the covariation between bite force, facial shape, and dental shape. There was no clear pattern or statistically significant covariation between our variables. Our results suggest aweak relationship between bite force, dental arch, and facial shape. Considering previous work in this field, we propose that low masticatory loads, characteristic in Western urban populations, may explain this. Further studies should, therefore, address this issue, taking into account effect size, the mechanical properties of the diet, and other relevant variables.

A preliminary study of the manufacturing of breech faces.

Firearm examiners may face challenges with subclass characteristics. Subclass characteristics have the potential to be confused with individual characteristics if a careful analysis for the presence of subclass characteristics is not performed. Several case studies are reported in the literature that discuss the presence of subclass characteristics and advise firearm examiners to disregard these characteristics for identification purposes. As far as can be determined, no fundamental study has been performed that explores the various methods used in firearm manufacturing and assess the potential of subclass characteristics being produced. In this study broaching, plunge milling, and lathe turning were used to produce consecutively manufactured breech faces for a Thompson/Center® (T/C®) Contender® G2 pistol. The breech faces were finished by tumbling or glass bead blasting. The 3D topographical scans of the breech faces were collected using a confocal microscope and then compared using the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) congruent matching cells (CMC) algorithm. The results of this study demonstrated the presence of subclass characteristics after manufacturing by broaching and plunge milling. Lathe turning did not produce any subclass characteristics. ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis H tests were used to determine significant differences between finishing methods within each manufacturing method. Significant differences were found in glass bead blasting versus tumbling and glass bead blasting versus no finish. No significant differences were found in no finish versus tumbling.

Influence of Head Circumference on the Accuracy of Facial Scanning: An In vitro Study

ObjectivesThis study aimed to investigate the impact of head circumference on the accuracy of three-dimensional (3D) facial scans, focusing on trueness and precision across three mannequin heads of different sizes. Material and methodsThree 3D-printed mannequin heads with circumferences of 30, 50, and 65 cm were used. Ten facial landmarks were identified to measure seven interlandmark distances and two angles. Direct anthropometric measurement, serving as the reference value, was taken using a digital vernier calliper for linear distance, and angle was calculated using the law of cosines. Each head was scanned six times using two systems: a dual-structured light facial scanner (iTom) and a stereophotogrammetry system (3dMD). Digital measurements were analysed using Meshlab and Blender for distances and angles, respectively. Trueness values were determined by comparing measurements to reference measurements, while precision values were derived from the variability among the six scans. Statistical analysis was performed using the Kruskal–Wallis test due to nonhomogeneous variances, followed by Bonferroni correction for pairwise group comparisons. ResultsFor each scanning system, overall deviations in trueness and precision significantly increased with head circumference. Five of the seven distances and one angle showed significant compromises in trueness with larger head circumferences. Most measurements exhibited significant precision decreasing due to head circumference changes, except for N-Pn and Pn-Sn. Additionally, 3dMD displayed higher overall trueness compared to iTom, with five out of seven linear measurements and one angular measurement showing better results. ConclusionHead circumference significantly affects both trueness and precision of 3D facial scans for both technologies, suggesting that facial imaging should be used with caution for larger faces. Selecting an appropriate scanning system, such as 3dMD, can help mitigate the negative effects of scanning larger objects.

Impact of the orofacial muscular rehabilitation exercise on facial expression recovery post-orthognathic surgery

ObjectiveThis study aimed to evaluate the impact of myofunctional rehabilitation of the orofacial muscles through specific exercises on the recovery of facial expression in patients following orthognathic surgery. Material and MethodsThe study included 62 patients who underwent Le Fort I and sagittal split ramus osteotomy (SSRO). Patients were divided into two groups: the first group started immediate post-operative myofunctional rehabilitation of the orofacial muscles through specific exercises. In contrast, patients in Group II did not undergo any myofunctional rehabilitation post-operative exercises. The recovery of facial expressions postoperatively was evaluated in both calm and smiling states by comparing the differences between 3D facial scanning data of chosen facial anatomical structures collected at five key time points: pre-surgery (D0), 2 days (D2), 14 days (D14), 1 month (D30), and 3 months (D90) postoperatively. ResultsThe analysis revealed that characteristic angles and lengths experienced significant changes post-surgery, with ∠chRnchL and ∠chRsnchL decreasing at D2 and normalizing by D30 in the experimental group, while the control group showed a slower recovery, normalizing by D90. The ChL-R length decreased at D2, returning to normal by D30 in the experimental group and D90 in the control group. The height Li-Ls increased at D2 and normalized by D30 in calm and smiling expressions across single and double jaw surgery patients. These findings underscore the more rapid recovery in the experimental group compared to the control group (P < 0.05; P < 0.005; P < 0.0001). ConclusionInitiating myofunctional rehabilitation immediately following orthognathic surgery enhances facial muscle function recovery, improves patient confidence, and expedites social reintegration. This approach is crucial for functional and psychological benefits.

Using three-dimensional geometric morphometry for facial analysis in patients with the oculo-auriculo-vertebral spectrum.

To utilize three-dimensional (3D) geometric morphometry for visualization of the level of facial asymmetry in patients with the oculo-auriculo-vertebral spectrum (OAVS). Three-dimensional facial scans of 25 Czech patients with OAVS were processed. The patients were divided into subgroups according to Pruzansky classification. For 13 of them, second 3D facial scans were obtained. The 3D facial scans were processed using geometric morphometry. Soft tissue facial asymmetry in the sagittal plane and its changes in two time spots were visualized using colour-coded maps with a thermometre-like scale. Individual facial asymmetry was visualized in all patients as well as the mean facial asymmetry for every Pruzansky subgroup. The mean colour-coded maps of type I and type IIA subgroups showed no differences in facial asymmetry, more pronounced asymmetry in the middle and the lower facial third was found between type IIA and type IIB (maximum 1.5 mm) and between type IIB and type III (maximum 2 mm). The degree of intensity facial asymmetry in affected middle and lower facial thirds did not change distinctly during the two time spots in all subgroups. The 3D geometric morphometry in OAVS patients could be a useful tool for objective facial asymmetry assessment in patients with OAVS. The calculated colour-coded maps are illustrative and useful for clinical evaluation.

Learning a Generalized Physical Face Model From Data

Physically-based simulation is a powerful approach for 3D facial animation as the resulting deformations are governed by physical constraints, allowing to easily resolve self-collisions, respond to external forces and perform realistic anatomy edits. Today's methods are data-driven, where the actuations for finite elements are inferred from captured skin geometry. Unfortunately, these approaches have not been widely adopted due to the complexity of initializing the material space and learning the deformation model for each character separately, which often requires a skilled artist followed by lengthy network training. In this work, we aim to make physics-based facial animation more accessible by proposing a generalized physical face model that we learn from a large 3D face dataset. Once trained, our model can be quickly fit to any unseen identity and produce a ready-to-animate physical face model automatically. Fitting is as easy as providing a single 3D face scan, or even a single face image. After fitting, we offer intuitive animation controls, as well as the ability to retarget animations across characters. All the while, the resulting animations allow for physical effects like collision avoidance, gravity, paralysis, bone reshaping and more.

Stereophotometric facial changes in edentulous older adults after rehabilitation with complete dentures.

To evaluate the facial characteristics of edentulous older adults who underwent rehabilitation using complete dentures, and to compare them with dentate individuals. Edentulism rehabilitation with complete dentures aims to restore occlusion and facial aesthetics. The study included 102 edentulous participants needing prosthodontic rehabilitation with complete dentures and 30 with a natural dentition (aged >65). The 3D facial scans were performed using an Artec optical scanner. Superficial facial landmarks were identified, and 16 parameters were calculated. Regional analysis with the superimposition of two scans was used to calculate the average distances and percentage of non-matching surfaces in the 11 regions. Paired and independent t-tests (α = .05) were used to test for group differences, as appropriate. After rehabilitation with complete dentures, facial changes were most noticeable in the perioral region: wider rima oris, longer upper lip, wider upper vermilion, and more protruded profile. The comparison of facial regions without and with dentures showed fuller and curvier cheeks, with no direct influence of dentures. The edentulous faces with dentures appeared shorter and more retruded than those of dentate individuals. A narrower lower vermilion, retruded upper lip, and more flattened facial profile were observed in females with dentures than in their dentate peers. Besides the expected positive influence of rehabilitation with complete dentures on facial appearance in the perioral region, there are some unexpected changes, such as fuller cheeks, but there is still deficiency in vertical facial dimensions and a more flattened facial profile.

Accuracy of Smartphone-Based Three-Dimensional Facial Scanning System: A Systematic Review.

Recently, the integration of 3D face scanning into smartphones has raised vast interest in plastic surgery. With the release of smartphones featuring 3D face scanning technology, users now can capture detailed 3D models of their faces using their smartphones. However, trueness and precision of this system is less well established. PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were searched for studies evaluating 3D scanning of smartphone devices and conventional 3D imaging systems from January 1, 2017, to June 1, 2023. A qualitative systematic review was conducted by two review authors after independently selecting studies, extracting data, and assessing the risk of bias of included studies. A total of 11 studies were included, all focusing on the accuracy of smartphone 3D facial scanning. The results show that although smartphones perform poorly on deep and irregular surfaces, they are accurate enough for clinical applications and have the advantage of being economical and portable. Smartphone-based 3D facial scanning has been basically validated for clinical application, showing broad clinical application prospects in plastic surgery. This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266 .

Imaging and 3D Analysis Based on Two or More Three-Dimensional CBCT Recordings before and after Orthodontic Treatment and Maxillofacial Therapy

Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) has emerged as a crucial radiographic technique for orthodontic diagnosis and treatment planning, particularly for cases requiring the assessment of complex anatomical relationships. In the first part of the study, we examined metric characteristics measured on 3D cranial models of patients before and after surgery. In the second part, we conducted more complex data processing, analyzing a set of 12 cranial feature points using Procrustes analysis to quantify and visually represent surgical modifications. The third part involved comparing 3D facial surfaces using Iterative Closest Point (ICP) alignment and nearest point-to-point distances. Additionally, we tested point configurations in the facial soft tissues. The study included a group of orthodontic patients from whom CBCT data and 3D facial scans were obtained during treatment. The results demonstrated that each method could assess preoperative and postoperative changes to varying degrees. They also highlighted potential gender differences in surgical modifications that warrant further investigation and consideration during surgical planning. The aim of our study was to compare 3D visualizations of skull and facial models before and after surgery, to assess the degree of relative agreement or similarity, and to identify any morphological differences.

Reducing Leak and Increasing Comfort of an N95 Filtering Facepiece Respirator for Aged-Care Workers Using a Customized, Soft, and Compliant Mask Frame

Abstract This prospective cohort study examines the quantitative fit-factor and tolerability impact of a novel custom frame designed to fit beneath N95 filtering facepiece respirators (FFRs) in a healthcare setting. Conducted at a medium-sized metropolitan residential aged care facility (RACF) in South Australia, sixty participants underwent quantitative fit testing while wearing institutional-provided N95 FFRs. Utilizing three-dimensional (3D) face scanning with a proprietary iPhone app, personalized frames were created using flexible silicone foam with a rigid plastic interior “backbone” to ensure compliance and comfort. Following the fitting of custom frames, participants underwent repeat quantitative fit testing using the same style and size of N95 FFRs. Results indicate a remarkable improvement, with 81.5% of participants achieving a pass on quantitative fit testing when using their custom frame in conjunction with the N95 FFRs, compared to a baseline pass rate of only 21.7% (odds ratio (OR) 20.9, 95% confidence interval (CI): 8.26, 58.50, p &amp;lt; 0.001 via logistic regression). Additionally, participants reported a 2.4 times higher level of tolerability when wearing the custom frame with their N95 FFRs compared to using FFRs alone (p &amp;lt; 0.001). In conclusion, the study demonstrates that wearing a customized frame device under an N95 FFR significantly enhances the likelihood of achieving a pass on quantitative fitting and offers a substantially more tolerable experience for wearers. These findings highlight the potential of personalized frame devices to improve respiratory protection efficacy and wearer comfort in healthcare settings.

Pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF) as a valid tool in orthognathic surgery to reduce post-operative pain and swelling: a prospective study

PurposePEMF (pulsed electromagnetic fields) founds application in several medical fields to accelerate bone wounds healing and to reduce inflammation. The aim of our study was to evaluate the effectiveness of PEMF in reducing postoperative swelling and pain in patients undergoing orthognathic surgery.MethodsA prospective observational monocentric study was conducted on a sample of 30 patients undergone to orthognathic surgery in Maxillofacial Surgery Unit of University of Naples Federico II. The patients who followed these inclusion criteria were enrolled in the study: age ≥ 18 years, Class III malocclusion, Surgical procedure of Le Fort I osteotomy + Bilateral Sagittal Split Osteotomy (BSSO), Written informed consent. Patients were divided into two groups: Group SD) postoperative standard treatment with medical therapy and cryotherapy, Group SD + PEMF) postoperative standard therapy + PEMF. Each patient underwent a 3D facial scan, at one (1d) and four (4d) days after surgery to compare the swelling reduction. The pain score was assessed through VAS score and analgesics administration amount.ResultsIn SD + PEMF group, the facial volume reduction between 1d and 4d scan was on average 56.2 ml (6.23%), while in SD group, it was 23.6 ml (2.63%). The difference between the two groups was 3.6% (p = 0.0168). VAS pain values were significantly higher in SD group compared to SD + PEMF group in the second day after surgery (P = 0.021) and in the total 4 days (P = 0.008).ConclusionsOur data suggest that PEMF is valid tool to promote faster postoperative swelling and pain reduction in patients undergoing orthognathic surgery.

Body mass index is an overlooked confounding factor in existing clustering studies of 3D facial scans of children with autism spectrum disorder

Cluster analyzes of facial models of autistic patients aim to clarify whether it is possible to diagnose autism on the basis of facial features and further to stratify the autism spectrum disorder. We performed a cluster analysis of sets of 3D scans of ASD patients (116) and controls (157) using Euclidean and geodesic distances in order to recapitulate the published results on the Czech population. In the presented work, we show that the major factor determining the clustering structure and consequently also the correlation of resulting clusters with autism severity degree is body mass index corrected for age (BMIFA). After removing the BMIFA effect from the data in two independent ways, both the cluster structure and autism severity correlations disappeared. Despite the fact that the influence of body mass index (BMI) on facial dimensions was studied many times, this is the first time to our knowledge when BMI was incorporated into the faces clustering study and it thereby casts doubt on previous results. We also performed correlation analysis which showed that the only correction used in the existing clustering studies—dividing the facial distance by the average value within the face—is not eliminating correlation between facial distances and BMIFA within the facial cohort.

3-Dimensional Evaluation of Two PNAM Techniques (Modified Grayson & AlignerNAM) on Facial Soft Tissue Morphology: A Randomised Clinical Trial.

Evaluate facial changes after Presurgical Naso-Alveolar Molding (PNAM) in unilateral cleft lip and palate (UCLP) patients treated with Modified Grayson Technique and AlignerNAM (with DynaCleft nasal elevator) using a 3D facial scan. Randomised clinical trial. Institutional study. Participants: 20 UCLP patients allocated to two groups (10 patients each). Group A patients underwent PNAM with Modified Grayson Technique and Group B patients underwent AlignerNAM (with DynaCleft nasal elevator). Their 3D facial scans were obtained by using an iOSbased application (Bellus3D FaceApp) mounted on a novel frame. These .stl files were analysed using 3D software (GOM INSPECT) at three-time intervals; before intervention (T0), after intervention (T1) and one month after lip repair surgery (T2). Changes in facial and nasolabial morphology. Both techniques brought significant improvement in the columellar length, nasal tip projection, columella angle, nasal tip angle and a significant reduction in cleft width. At T1, a statistically significant difference in angular and linear measurements was present in both groups. At T2, no statistically significant difference in linear parameters was observed between the two groups except for the outer lateral height of the non-cleft side, basal lateral height of the non-cleft side, and philtrum width. Similar pattern was observed in angular measurements with no statistically significant difference between the two groups except in nasolabial angle, anterior nasal base triangle III, and anterior nasal root triangle. Aligner NAM and Modified Grayson technique are equally effective PNAM methods with similar clinical results in nasolabial morphology after lip repair surgery.

Relationship between Bilateral Landmarks of Facial Asymmetry in Skeletal Class II and Class III in Vertical Dimension: 3D Facial Scan and Cone-Beam Computed Tomography.

Significant facial asymmetry can lead to both functional and aesthetic issues. Often, such asymmetry originates from irregularities in the jaw structure. It is critical to recognize that asymmetries can be concealed by soft tissue, which may be overlooked. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationships between bilateral landmarks in the vertical dimension of facial asymmetry among individuals with skeletal Class II and Class III malocclusions. Fifty-two adult patients with a mean age of 24.4 ± 3.79 years with facial asymmetry who underwent orthodontic and orthognathic surgery were studied. Cone-beam computed tomography and facial scans were used to create 3D virtual head models which enhanced the accuracy in addressing facial asymmetry to ensure effective treatment planning. Each landmark was measured and digitized using the Dolphin Imaging program. The findings showed a correlation between gender and type of skeletal discrepancies with the menton deviation direction. In conclusion, the vertical discrepancy between bilateral landmarks was observable in both hard and soft tissues with more pronounced expression in soft tissues. This discrepancy was characterized by an elevation on the same side as the menton deviation, which was a feature observed in both skeletal Class II and Class III individuals.

3D facial mask for facial asymmetry diagnosis

ObjectivesFacial asymmetry is a common problem seen in orthodontic clinics that may affect patient esthetics. In some instances, severe asymmetry that affects patient esthetics may cause psychological issues. An objective method is therefore required to help orthodontists identify asymmetry issues. Materials and methodsWe used three-dimensional (3D) facial images and landmark-based anthropometric analysis to construct a 3D facial mask to evaluate asymmetry. The landmark coordinates were transformed using a symmetric 3D face model to evaluate the efficacy of this method. Patients with facial asymmetry were recruited to conduct mirror and overlap analysis to form color maps, which were used to verify the utility of the novel soft tissue landmark-based method. ResultsThe preliminary results demonstrated that the asymmetry evaluation method had a similar response rate compared to diagnosis using mirror and overlap 3D images, and could therefore identify 3D asymmetry problems. ConclusionsBy using 3D facial scans and 3D anthropometric analysis, we developed a preliminary evaluation method that provides objective parameters to clinically evaluate patient facial asymmetry and aid in the diagnosis of asymmetric areas. Clinical relevanceThis study presents a novel facial asymmetry diagnostic method that has the potential to aid clinical decisions during problem identification, treatment planning, and efficacy evaluation.

Face anthropometry for filtering facepiece respirators: analysis of the association between facial dimensions and respirator fit.

Ensuring proper respirator fit for individuals remains a persistent challenge in occupational environments, yet there is limited knowledge about how respirators interact with the face to "'fit." Previous studies have attempted to understand the association between face dimensions and respirator fit using traditional head/face anthropometry not specifically tailored for respirators. The purpose of this study was to assess and compare the ability of filtering facepiece respirator (FFR)-specific face anthropometry with traditional head/face anthropometry in exploring the relationship between facial dimensions and the fit of FFR. The study utilized 3D face scans and quantitative fit factor scores from 56 participants to investigate the relationship between face anthropometry and FFR fit. Both FFR-specific and traditional anthropometric measurements were obtained through 3D anthropometric software. Intra-correlation of anthropometry was analyzed to evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of FFR-specific and traditional anthropometry respectively. Principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted to test the usefulness of the PCA method for investigating various facial features. Logistic regression was used to develop fit association models by estimating the relationship between each face measurement set and the binary outcome of the fit test result. The prediction accuracy of the developed regression models was tested. FFR-specific face anthropometry consists of a set of measurements that can inform the detailed facial shape associated with the FFRs more effectively than traditional head/face anthropometry. While PCA may have been effective in reducing the variable dimensions for the relatively large parts of the human body such as upper and lower bodies in previous literature, PCA results of FFR-specific and traditional anthropometry were inconsistent and insufficient to describe face dimensions with complex anatomy in a small-detailed area, suggesting that facial shape should be understood through a variety of approaches including statistical methods. Logistic regression analysis results confirmed that the association models of FFR-specific face anthropometry were significant with higher prediction accuracy and had a better model's goodness of fit than those of traditional head/face anthropometry in 3 conditions inputting all measurements, all PC scores, or top 5 measurements from PCA. The findings showed that the FFR fit association model enables an understanding of the detailed association between face and respirator fit and allows for the development of a system to predict respirator fit success or failure based on facial dimensions. Future research would include testing the validity of the model and FFR-specific measurement set on different respirator types, expanding the population set, and developing an integrated approach using automated and machine learning technologies to inform FFR selection for occupation workers and the general population.

Customized Facial Orthopedics: Proof of Concept for Generating 3D-Printed Extra-Oral Appliance for Early Intervention in Class III Malocclusion

Background: The present case report serves as a proof of concept for the fabrication and effective clinical administration of a 3D-printed chin cup tailored to the patient’s anatomical characteristics. Methods: An 11-year-old male with a Class III malocclusion was treated using a chin cup appliance to intercept and control a Class III mandibular skeletal growing pattern early. Two tailored chin cup devices were designed using 3D face scanning and CBCT scanning and were produced with additive manufacturing techniques. The chin pads were digitally designed based on a 3D scan of the patient’s face. The 3D modeling of chin cup components was performed using 3Shape Appliance Designer and 3D printed with biocompatible resin. An analogic chin pad was also produced for the same patient. The treatment plan involved the patient wearing the chin cup for 13 h per day. The patient was instructed to use all three chin pads produced at intervals of 4 months. The patient’s experience was assessed by reporting the comfort experience via a VAS scale. The treatment strategy was effective in improving the skeletal Class III malocclusion. Additionally, the integration of 3D face scanning (or CBCT scanning), modeling, and printing enables the production of customized chin cups with superior fit and comfort, contributing to enhanced patient compliance and treatment efficacy.

An interactive atlas of three-dimensional syndromic facial morphology

Craniofacial phenotyping is critical for both syndrome delineation and diagnosis because craniofacial abnormalities occur in 30% of characterized genetic syndromes. Clinical reports, textbooks, and available software tools typically provide two-dimensional, static images and illustrations of the characteristic phenotypes of genetic syndromes. In this work, we provide an interactive web application that provides three-dimensional, dynamic visualizations for the characteristic craniofacial effects of 95 syndromes. Users can visualize syndrome facial appearance estimates quantified from data and easily compare craniofacial phenotypes of different syndromes. Our application also provides a map of morphological similarity between a target syndrome and other syndromes. Finally, users can upload 3D facial scans of individuals and compare them to our syndrome atlas estimates. In summary, we provide an interactive reference for the craniofacial phenotypes of syndromes that allows for precise, individual-specific comparisons of dysmorphology.

Accuracy of 3D facial scans: a comparison of three different scanning system in an in vivo study

BackgroundThe aim of the study was to compare the accuracy and reproducibility of three different 3D facial scanning systems, relying, respectively, on stereophotogrammetry, structured light and a smartphone app and camera.MethodsThirty subjects have been scanned with three different facial scanning systems, stereophotogrammetry, structured light and a smartphone app and camera. Linear measurements were compared with direct anthropometries measured on the patient's face, while the study of areas (forehead, tip of the nose, chin, right and left cheek) was evaluated by overlapping scans using the Geomagic Control X program. Statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS v28 software.ResultsThe ANOVA test was used to compare linear distances and direct anthropometry measurements, revealing statically significant values for all distances investigated, especially for the Face Hunter scanner, except for the Prn–Pog′ distance (p = 0.092). The three facial scans were superimposed pairwise almost the 100 per cent of the overlapping areas fell within the tolerance limits for all three comparisons analysed. The chin was the most accurately reproduced, with no differences among scanners, while the forehead proved to be the least accurately reproduced by all scanners.ConclusionsAll three acquisition systems proved to be effective in capturing 3D images of the face, with the exception of the Face Hunter scanner, that produced statistically significant differences in linear measurements for the distances Tr–Na′ and Zyg–Zyg with respect to direct anthropometric measurements.

High Fat Diet-Induced Obesity Dysregulates Splenic B Cell Mitochondrial Activity.

Diet-induced obesity impairs mitochondrial respiratory responses in tissues that are highly metabolically active, such as the heart. However, less is known about the impact of obesity on the respiratory activity of specific cell types, such as splenic B cells. B cells are of relevance, as they play functional roles in obesity-induced insulin resistance, inflammation, and responses to infection. Here, we tested the hypothesis that high-fat-diet (HFD)-induced obesity could impair the mitochondrial respiration of intact and permeabilized splenic CD19+ B cells isolated from C57BL/6J mice and activated ex vivo with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). High-resolution respirometry was used with intact and permeabilized cells. To reveal potential mechanistic targets by which HFD-induced obesity dysregulates B cell mitochondria, we conducted proteomic analyses and 3D serial block face scanning electron microscopy (SBFEM). High-resolution respirometry revealed that intact LPS-stimulated B cells of obese mice, relative to controls, displayed lower ATP-linked, as well as maximal uncoupled, respiration. To directly investigate mitochondrial function, we used permeabilized LPS-stimulated B cells, which displayed increased H2O2 emission and production with obesity. We also examined oxidative phosphorylation efficiency simultaneously, which revealed that oxygen consumption and ATP production were decreased in LPS-stimulated B cells with obesity relative to controls. Despite minimal changes in total respiratory complex abundance, in LPS-stimulated B cells of obese mice, three of the top ten most downregulated proteins were all accessory subunits of respiratory complex I. SBFEM showed that B cells of obese mice, compared to controls, underwent no change in mitochondrial cristae integrity but displayed increased mitochondrial volume that was linked to bioenergetic function. Collectively, these results establish a proof of concept that HFD-induced obesity dysregulates the mitochondrial bioenergetic metabolism of activated splenic B cells.