Three-dimensional Film Research Articles

Small or far away? Size and distance perception in the praying mantis.

Stereo or ‘3D’ vision is an important but costly process seen in several evolutionarily distinct lineages including primates, birds and insects. Many selective advantages could have led to the evolution of stereo vision, including range finding, camouflage breaking and estimation of object size. In this paper, we investigate the possibility that stereo vision enables praying mantises to estimate the size of prey by using a combination of disparity cues and angular size cues. We used a recently developed insect 3D cinema paradigm to present mantises with virtual prey having differing disparity and angular size cues. We predicted that if they were able to use these cues to gauge the absolute size of objects, we should see evidence for size constancy where they would strike preferentially at prey of a particular physical size, across a range of simulated distances. We found that mantises struck most often when disparity cues implied a prey distance of 2.5 cm; increasing the implied distance caused a significant reduction in the number of strikes. We, however, found no evidence for size constancy. There was a significant interaction effect of the simulated distance and angular size on the number of strikes made by the mantis but this was not in the direction predicted by size constancy. This indicates that mantises do not use their stereo vision to estimate object size. We conclude that other selective advantages, not size constancy, have driven the evolution of stereo vision in the praying mantis.This article is part of the themed issue ‘Vision in our three-dimensional world’.

Large area synthesis, characterization, and anisotropic etching of two dimensional tungsten disulfide films

Emergent properties of tungsten disulfide at the quantum confinement limit hold promise for electronic and optoelectronic applications. Here we report on the large area synthesis of atomically thin tungsten disulfide films with strong photoluminescence properties via sulfurization of the pre-deposited tungsten films. Detailed characterization of the pre-deposited tungsten films and tungsten disulfide films are performed using microscopy and spectroscopy methods. By directly heating tungsten disulfide films in air, we have shown that the films tend to be etched into a series of triangular shaped pits with the same orientations, revealing the anisotropic etching behavior of tungsten disulfide edges. Moreover, the dimensions of the triangular pits increase with the number of layers, suggesting a thickness dependent behavior of etching in tungsten disulfide films. This method offers a promising new avenue for engineering the edge structures of tungsten disulfide films.

The Development of the Hepatic Venous System in Man

The drainage of the umbilical and vitelline veins into the sinus venosus at 4 weeks of development (Carnegie Stage (CS) 12) is well documented, but to what extent these veins play a role in the development of the hepatic venous system remains to be established. We reinvestigated this issue in a closely spaced series of human embryos between 4 and 7 weeks of development. Embryological structures were visualised with Amira 3D reconstruction and Cinema 4D remodelling software.In the 5th week (CS13), the vitelline and umbilical veins became enclosed by the expanding mesenchyme of the septum transversum, while the expanding liver primordium enclosed the vitelline veins only. Concomitant with the repositioning of the entrance of the sinus venosus into the right atrium, the most distal part of the right vitelline vein (“hepatocardiac vein”) increased in diameter, whereas the corresponding left portion did not.In early CS14 embryos (~33 days of development), the liver primordium also enclosed the umbilical veins. While the connection of these veins with the sinus venosus disappeared, a connection (ductus venosus) appeared between the portion of the left umbilical vein that entered the liver and the right hepatocardiac vein. The intrahepatic part of the right vitelline vein temporarily persisted as a fairly large, “C”‐shaped vessel along the right‐sided outer edge of liver until the ductus venosus had acquired a similar size as the umbilical vein. Thereafter, the remaining part of the left and the intrahepatic portion of the right vitelline vein regressed. The right umbilical vein started to regress as soon as it was enclosed by the liver.In late CS14 embryos (~35 days of development), vessels larger than sinusoids emerged from the right vitelline (portal) vein and the (left‐sided) ductus venosus in the central part of the liver, while a well‐developed sinusoidal network was identifiable in the liver periphery. In CS15 and CS16 embryos, the portal branches extended further into the liver periphery, but remained confined to the right and left hemi‐livers, respectively. Meanwhile, the sinusoidal network extended towards the centre, followed by the appearance of hepatic veins in this network from the hepatocardiac vein towards the liver periphery. In CS16 embryos (~39 days of development), 2 main portal branches with only few side branches had developed in the right hemi‐liver, while the hepatic veins did not yet branch. In contrast, multiple small branches originated from the ductus venosus in the left hemi‐liver and hepatic veins were hardly identifiable. At 7 weeks of development (CS20), only 3 main portal branches remained in the left hemi‐liver and hepatic veins were appearing in between.ConclusionsThe vitelline and umbilical veins contribute to the hepatic venous system, but at their entrance and exit from the liver only. Development of the intrahepatic portal veins precedes that of the hepatic veins and development of the right hemi‐liver precedes that of the left hemi‐liver. The local appearance of hepatic veins does not obey the boundary between left and right hemi‐liver and appears to reflect the emergence of ordered flow patterns in that part of the liver. Our data explain the development and some of the variability of liver segments.

Observation of Two Dimensional Metallic Surface States and Metal to Semiconductor Transition on Low Dimensional Polar Thin Films

Two dimensional (2D) metallic conductivity has been studied for more than a decade because the unusual surface metallic states of ultrathin films may result in applications for 2D superconductors, spintronics and optoelectronic devices. Surface metallic states were predicted on ZnO polar surfaces, which is caused by charge transfer from O-terminated (000-1) surface to Zn-terminated (0001) surface to stabilize the polar instability.1 This charge transfer in polar thin films was also found to cause abrupt phase transition (i.e. ferromagnetism,2 and semiconductor to semimetal transition3), opening a new way to design functional devices by engineering surface or interface of ultrathin films. 2D metallic conductivity on ZnO has not been previously demonstrated in experiments. The charge transport properties of 2D surfaces have proved to be difficult to measure because of the dominant effect of bottom, bulk conduction channels. In our study, we reduce the ZnO thickness to several nanometer to suppress the bulk conduction channels and first experimentally show 2D metallic states on polar ZnO surfaces through surface conductivity measurements on SiO2 substrates. Then, introduction of a high density of oxygen vacancies to the polar ZnO surfaces can cause metal to semiconductor transition. These experimental results are also confirmed by the first principle calculations. [1] Wander, A.; Schedin, F.; Steadman, P.; et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 2001, 86, (17), 3811-3814. [2] Wang, X. R.; Li, C. J.; Lu, W. M.; et al., Science 2015, 349, (6249), 716-719. [3] Kim, J.; Baik, S. S.; Ryu, S. H.; et al., Science 2015, 349, (6249), 723-726.

3D Cinema and Headache: The First Evidential Relation and Analysis of Involved Factors.

A possible link between 3D movies and headache (HA) has never been a target of specific and systematic investigations. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between 3D cinema and HA and to evaluate possible risk factors of developing HA during or after watching a 3D movie. This was a prospective, non-randomized, observational study. Six thousand specifically designed questionnaires were distributed to consecutive cinema visitors. Relative HA risks for 2D- vs. 3D-movie visitors and the effects of background variables were analyzed. The questionnaire was filled and returned by 1293 persons. The mean age of responders was 33.0 ± 11.3 years. Individuals who viewed 3D movies reported HA during or after the movie 1.61 times more often than 2D-movie viewers (11.1% in 3D vs. 7.2% in 2D movies, p = 0.017). The risk was higher in women: 2.65 times for 2D (p = 0.019) and 1.85 times for 3D movies (p = 0.06), and decreased with age by 4.6% with each year for 2D (p = 0.0035) and by 3.2% for 3D movies (p = 0.0098). Among 3D-movie visitors, those with previous HAs were 4.17 times more prone to get a cinema-induced HA (p = 0.02). The risk was the highest for persons with migraine (OR = 3.37, p = 0.001). For the first time, it was evidentially shown that 3D movies can provoke HA. Persons at risk are mostly younger women and/or migraineurs. Based on our results, for those belonging to the aforementioned risk groups, it can be mainly recommended to choose passive 3D technology and to view movies from the farthest possible distance.

Nanostructured SnO2-Ge Multi-layer thin Films with Quantum Confinement Effects for Solar Cell.

It is well-known that multi-layer films with nanostructure can give novel properties by interfacial phenomenon and quantum confinement effects. Nanostructured multi-layer thin films are presently being analyzed for their vast applications in the area of optoelectronics technology particularly photovoltaics. Hereof, two dimensional thin films with nanostructure are of prime importance due to their structure dependent optical, electrical, and opto-electronic properties. It has been revealed that these films exhibit quantum confinement effects with band gap engineering. The main focus of the research is to evaluate the effect on structural and optical properties with number of layers. Nanostructured SnO2-Ge multi-layer thin films were fabricated using electron beam evaporation and resistive heating techniques. Alternate layers of SnO2 and Ge were deposited on glass substrate at a substrate temperature of 300 °C in order to obtain uniform and homogeneous deposition. The substrate temperature of 300 °C has been determined to be effective for the deposition of these multi-layer films from our previous studies. The films were characterized by investigating their structural and optical properties. The structural properties of the as-deposited films were characterized by Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy (RBS) and Raman spectroscopy and optical properties by Ultra-Violet-Near infrared (UV-VIS-NIR) spectroscopy. RBS studies confirmed that the layer structure has been effectively formed. Raman spectroscopy results show that the peaks of both Ge and SnO2 shifts towards lower wavenumbers (in comparison with bulk Ge and SnO2, suggesting that the films consist of nanostructures and demonstrate quantum confinement effects. UV-VIS-NIR spectroscopy showed an increase in the band gap energy of Ge and SnO2 and shifting of transmittance curves toward higher wavelength by increasing the number of layers. The band gap lies in the range of 0.9 to 1.2 eV for Ge, while for SnO2, it lies between 1.7 to 2.1 eV. Analysis of results suggests that the nanostructured SnO2-Ge multi-layer thin film can work as heterojunction materials with quantum confinement effects. Accordingly, the present SnO2-Ge multi-layer films may be employed for photovoltaic applications. Few relevant patents to the topic have been reviewed and cited.

Transparent and conductive Ti3C2Tx (MXene) thin film fabrication by electrohydrodynamic atomization technique

In this work conducting thin films have been fabricated from two-dimensional Ti3C2Tx (MXene) using cheap and vacuum free solution processible electrohydrodynamic atomization technique, for the first time. Delaminated Ti3C2Tx dispersed in ethanol has been processed and optimized deposition parameters have been achieved to deposit Ti3C2Tx thin film, directly. Three films of Ti3C2Tx with different thickness (135, 248 and 337 nm) based on deposition time i.e. 20 min (S1), 40 min (S2) and 60 min (S3) were fabricated on glass substrate, respectively. After which, films were annealed at 400 °C for 2 h in an inert environment. Films were fully characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, UV–Vis-NIR, X-Ray Diffraction and the Zahner XPOT. Resistivity of S1, S2 and S3 were calculated to be 3.4 × 10−4 Ω-cm, 130 × 10−4 Ω-cm and 210 × 10−4 Ω-cm respectively ~86.7 % transmittance has obtained for S1 at 550 nm. For investigating electrode performance for Ti3C2Tx, films are applied as top electrode in diode (FTO/TiO2/Ti3C2Tx). It has been observed that S1 has shown the best diode behavior with 120 mA at 3 V. Therefore, we claim that two dimensional Ti3C2Tx MXene thin films have great potential to be further investigated for utilizing in photo-electronics, energy storage devices and sensing applications.

A Tool for Stereoscopic Parameter Setting Based on Geometric Perceived Depth Percentage

It is a necessary but challenging task for creative producers to have an idea of the depth perception of the target audience when watching a stereoscopic film in a cinema during production. This paper proposes a novel metric, geometric perceived depth percentage (GPDP), to numerate and depict the depth perception of a scene before rendering. In addition to the geometric relationship between the object depth and focal distance, GPDP takes the screen width and viewing distance into account. As a result, it provides a more intuitive means for predicting stereoscopy and is universal across different viewing conditions. Based on GPDP, we design a practical tool to visualize the stereoscopic perception without the need for any 3-D device or special environment. The tool utilizes the stereoscopic comfort volume, GPDP-based shading schemes, depth perception markers, and GPDP histograms as visual cues so that animators can set stereoscopic parameters more easily. The tool is easily implemented in any modern rendering pipeline, including interactive Autodesk Maya and offline Pixar’s RenderMan renderer. It has been used in several production projects including commercial ones. Finally, two user studies show that GPDP is a proper depth perception indicator and the proposed tool can make the stereoscopic parameter setting process easier and more efficient.

Controllable electrical and physical breakdown of poly-crystalline silicon nanowires by thermally assisted electromigration.

The importance of poly-crystalline silicon (poly-Si) in semiconductor manufacturing is rapidly increasing due to its highly controllable conductivity and excellent, uniform deposition quality. With the continuing miniaturization of electronic components, low dimensional structures such as 1-dimensional nanowires (NWs) have attracted a great deal of attention. But such components have a much higher current density than 2- or 3- dimensional films, and high current can degrade device lifetime and lead to breakdown problems. Here, we report on the electrical and thermal characteristics of poly-Si NWs, which can also be used to control electrical and physical breakdown under high current density. This work reports a controllable catastrophic change of poly-Si NWs by thermally-assisted electromigration and underlying mechanisms. It also reports the direct and real time observation of these catastrophic changes of poly-Si nanowires for the first time, using scanning electron microscopy.

Multimodal speaker clustering in full length movies

Multimodal clustering/diarization tries to answer the question "who spoke when" by using audio and visual information. Diarizationconsists of two steps, at first segmentation of the audio information and detection of the speech segments and then clustering of the speech segments to group the speakers. This task has been mainly studied on audiovisual data from meetings, news broadcasts or talk shows. In this paper, we use visual information to aid speaker clustering and we introduce a new video-based feature, called actor presence that can be used to enhance audio-based speaker clustering. We tested the proposed method in three full length stereoscopic movies, i.e. a scenario much more difficult than the ones used so far, where there is no certainty that speech segments and video appearances of actors will always overlap. The results proved that the visual information can improve the speaker clustering accuracy and hence the diarization process.

Effect of Viewing a Long Stereoscopic Film on Equilibrium Function and Autonomic Nervous System

Owing to the recent rapid advancements in image processing and three-dimensional (3-D) technologies, stereoscopic images can now be viewed on television as well as in theaters and on gaming consoles among others. However, with these advancements, there have also been reports on motion sickness and asthenopia induced by viewing stereoscopic films. Human equilibrium function deteriorates when viewing stereoscopic films, which may lead to motion sickness; however, the exact cause of such motion sickness remains unknown. Therefore, as part of hygiene research that contributes to society, it is important to consider the safety of viewing virtual 3D contents. In this study, we investigated the effects of viewing 2-D/3-D video clips on the human body by stabilometry, electrogastrography (EGG), and subjective assessments. Seven subjects aged 22 to 24 viewed 2-D/3-D video clips for 60 min. A comparison of time series data obtained at rest shows a significant change in the EGG patterns 20 min after the start of viewing the video clips. Furthermore, sway values while viewing the 3-D video clips were considerably higher than those while viewing the 2-D video clips 60 min after the start of viewing. These findings show that the autonomic nervous system is affected first by long-term viewing of stereoscopic films, and the equilibrium function deteriorates gradually over the course of the exposure.

Evaluation of Motion Sickness Induced by 3D Video Clips

The use of stereoscopic images has been spreading rapidly. Nowadays, stereoscopic movies are nothing new to people. Stereoscopic systems date back to 280 A.D. when Euclid first recognized the concept of depth perception by humans. Despite the increase in the production of three-dimensional (3D) display products and many studies on stereoscopic vision, the effect of stereoscopic vision on the human body has been insufficiently understood. However, symptoms such as eye fatigue and 3D sickness have been the concerns when viewing 3D films for a prolonged period of time; therefore, it is important to consider the safety of viewing virtual 3D contents as a contribution to society. It is generally explained to the public that accommodation and convergence are mismatched during stereoscopic vision and that this is the main reason for the visual fatigue and visually induced motion sickness (VIMS) during 3D viewing. We have devised a method to simultaneously measure lens accommodation and convergence. We used this simultaneous measurement device to characterize 3D vision. Fixation distance was compared between accommodation and convergence during the viewing of 3D films with repeated measurements. Time courses of these fixation distances and their distributions were compared in subjects who viewed 2D and 3D video clips. The results indicated that after 90 s of continuously viewing 3D images, the accommodative power does not correspond to the distance of convergence. In this paper, remarks on methods to measure the severity of motion sickness induced by viewing 3D films are also given. From the epidemiological viewpoint, it is useful to obtain novel knowledge for reduction and/or prevention of VIMS. We should accumulate empirical data on motion sickness, which may contribute to the development of relevant fields in science and technology.

A Study on the Allocation of Depth Budgets in Stereoscopic 3D Film Making

A Study on the Allocation of Depth Budgets in Stereoscopic 3D Film Making

In Situ Electrochemical Fabrication of Three Dimensional Hierarchical Nanoporous Copper Films and Their Electrocatalytic Performance

We reported a facile strategy to fabricate three dimensional (3D) hierarchical nanoporous Cu films via simple in-situ electrochemical alloying/dealloying approach in a choline chloride-ethylene glycol (ethaline) deep eutectic solvent (DES) containing zinc chloride. The fabrication process involved electrochemical formation of Cu-Zn surface alloys (alloying), and followed by in-situ selective etching of the active zinc element from the alloys (dealloying). Compared with those exerted from choline chloride-urea (reline) based DES, the resultant nanoporous Cu (NPC) films obtained in ethaline exhibited a hierarchical porous architecture with a tailorable channel/pore size distribution. The evolution of nanoporosity was found to be highly temperature and time dependent, suggesting a thermal activation process controlled by surface diffusion. For kinetics investigation, the surface diffusivities of self-assembled copper atoms at the hierarchical layers, and their corresponding activation energies have been evaluated. The as-prepared NPC showed a significant catalytic activity for reduction of nitrate with a linear detection range of 10–100 μM. A fairly high nitrate sensitivity of 3415 μA mM−1 cm−2 coupled with a low detection limit of 1.92 μM is achieved.

Facile synthesis of three dimensional porous ZnO films with mesoporous walls and gas sensing properties

Controllable synthesis of 3-D mesoporous ZnO films is highly desirable for gas sensor application. Herein, we report a facile preparation of 3-D mesoporous ZnO film on Ag interdigitated electrodes substrate. The as-prepared ZnO film has a mesoporous walls ranging from 2–5nm, as revealed by XRD, SEM, and TEM. Importantly, the as-prepared 3-D ZnO film shows an excellent ethanol gas sensing.

Infrahepatic inferior caval and azygos vein formation in mammals with different degrees of mesonephric development.

Controversies regarding the development of the mammalian infrahepatic inferior caval and azygos veins arise from using topography rather than developmental origin as criteria to define venous systems and centre on veins that surround the mesonephros. We compared caudal-vein development in man with that in rodents and pigs (rudimentary and extensive mesonephric development, respectively), and used Amira 3D reconstruction and Cinema 4D-remodelling software for visualisation. The caudal cardinal veins (CCVs) were the only contributors to the inferior caval (IVC) and azygos veins. Development was comparable if temporary vessels that drain the large porcine mesonephros were taken into account. The topography of the CCVs changed concomitant with expansion of adjacent organs (lungs, meso- and metanephroi). The iliac veins arose by gradual extension of the CCVs into the caudal body region. Irrespective of the degree of mesonephric development, the infrarenal part of the IVC developed from the right CCV and the renal part from vascular sprouts of the CCVs in the mesonephros that formed 'subcardinal' veins. The azygos venous system developed from the cranial remnants of the CCVs. Temporary venous collaterals in and around the thoracic sympathetic trunk were interpreted as 'footprints' of the dorsolateral-to-ventromedial change in the local course of the intersegmental and caudal cardinal veins relative to the sympathetic trunk. Interspecies differences in timing of the same events in IVC and azygos-vein development appear to allow for proper joining of conduits for caudal venous return, whereas local changes in topography appear to accommodate efficient venous perfusion. These findings demonstrate that new systems, such as the 'supracardinal' veins, are not necessary to account for changes in the course of the main venous conduits of the embryo.

A Study on the Development of Stereoscopic Film

A Study on the Development of Stereoscopic Film

Culture effects of mouse induced pluripotent stem cells by three-dimensional films in vitro

To observe the proliferation and differentiation capacities of mouse induced pluripotent stem cells (miPSCs) cultured in 3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate(PHBHHx) three-dimensional films three-dimension films for the purpose of finding a suitable polymeric biomaterials for forming myocardial patches. miPSCs were recovered, passaged, cultured and identified, then miPSCs divided into the experimental and control groups. MiPSCs in the experimental group were cultured with PHBHHx three-dimension films. MiPSCs in the control group were cultured with traditional culture dish. Stem cell culture medium or differential medium were added to miPSCs to detecte cell vitality by CCK-8 after 72 hours or to measure the cTnT expression of miPSCs through immunofluorescence or the cTnT expression quantity through flow cytometry after 15 days. Cell activity assay showed that the absorbance values were 0.836 ± 0.038 in the experimental group, 0.312 ± 0.004 in the control group (P<0.05). Scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation showed that miPSCs grew well on the PHBHHx dimensional films with normal shape. Immunofluorescence results demonstrated positive cTnT expression in both groups and flow cytometry measured cTnT expression was (60.32 ± 1.76)% in the experimental group and (47.54 ± 1.46)% in the control group (P<0.05). miPSCs can survive, proliferate and differentiate on PHBHHx dimensional films. miPSCs proliferation and differentiation capacities are significantly higher in PHBHHx three-dimensional films culture compared with the traditional cell culture.

Evaluating Subjective Impressions of Quality Controlled 3D Films on Large and Small Screens

We investigate audiences' subjective impressions of two high-quality 3D stereoscopic films when viewed on a large projected display (160-in diagonal). We further show that our results are repeatable using TV-sized displays (50-in diagonal) and sites outside our laboratory. The literature proposes a number of algorithms that aim to produce high-quality stereoscopic depth in 3D films. Many of these algorithms limit the stereoscopic depth to a defined depth budget, which can be dynamically allocated through the course of a film. However, there have been no detailed studies evaluating audiences' subjective impressions of 3D films that utilize such algorithms, which is something we seek to correct in this study. This study comprises an original experiment and four differentiated replications, across which we vary the film, display technology, and international location used. All of these experiments implement a pre-test post-test quasi-experiment design, in which participants were asked, before and after viewing a 3D film, to rate their agreement with five statements concerning 3D films. These statements addressed the viewing experience, comfort, naturalness, suitability to conveying complex information, and benefit to learning associated with 3D displays. One of two possible films were shown to each participant, both of which were produced using our own stereoscopic depth control algorithms and have won national or international awards, giving independent confirmation of their quality. Our results indicate that audiences' responses to our five statements change positively after viewing high-quality 3D films. Furthermore, these results are repeatable for large and TV-sized displays, as well as for locations outside our laboratory. We conclude that it is important to produce high-quality content with a carefully controlled depth budget in order to evoke positive reactions in audiences to 3D films.

The Visual Representation of the Physical Space through Stereoscopic S3D Documentary

In 1987 I began my academic activities as a film researcher and documentary filmmaker. Since 2003 I have been researching the subject of stereoscopic film (S3D [1] ), as much from a technological point of view and from the point of view of the audiovisual language. The interest in documentary films led the author to experiment with various techniques of stereoscopic filming, as well as analyze various documentary films in both 2D and S3D. The S3D film technology that uses two synchronized cameras has been competing with technology that uses a single camera with two lenses and two sensors. The heavy weight and large size of the two-camera technology complicates the mobility and agility of the documentary film language. This paper intends to investigate theoretical issues related to the use of these technologies in filming S3D documentaries and its immersive function. The current stage of the two-camera technology implies a setback in the film methods that have been enhanced from the experience of the American Direct Cinema and French Cinema Verite, with strong implications on the film language. [1] The acronym S3D or Stereo 3D, is used to represent the stereoscopic system, thus avoiding confusion with the 3D images produced by computer modeling of three-dimensional environment, which are mostly two-dimensional.