3D Cadastre Research Articles

Identifying Legal, BIM Data and Visualization Requirements to Form Legal Spaces and Developing a Web-Based 3D Cadastre Prototype: A Case Study of Condominium Building

Over the past decade, numerous countries and researchers have been investigating the potential of 3D cadastre based on the Building Information Model (BIM). In Türkiye, the General Directorate of Land Registry and Cadastre (GDLRC) has been engaged in the “Production of 3D City Models and Creation of 3D Cadastral Bases Project” since 2018. One of the objectives is to develop 3D (physical) digital building models (and databases) through the digitization of floor plans of architectural drawings. In order to ensure the long-term viability of this project, a new regulation was issued in 2021. This regulation mandates the submission of 3D digital building models to the land registry in order to register condominiums. The future goals of the GDLRC include utilizing the 3D digital building models produced to create legal spaces in condominium buildings for the 3D cadastre. However, no research has yet been carried out for this goal. The objective of this research is to identify the legal and BIM data requirements for deriving legal spaces in condominium buildings, in light of the legislative analysis, and to develop a web-based 3D cadastre visualization prototype (showing both legal spaces and physical objects) based on the requirements obtained from the scientific literature. The result of this research demonstrates that well-structured and annotated BIM data can be used to develop a 3D cadastre prototype that meets the legal requirements in the case of Türkiye. Moreover, it is evident that, although the GDLRC has initiated the construction of a robust foundation for a 3D cadastre based on BIM, further enhancements and resolutions must be implemented from a legal and technical standpoint. It is postulated that the identified requirements and the proposed methodology in this research may assist decision-makers in Türkiye and globally in formulating their strategic plans for a 3D cadastre.

Cadastre in Nepal: Need for 3D and Way Towards 4D

Increase in population and its migration towards urban areas are leading to unmanaged urbanization generating pressure on the land. To meet the demand of migrating people, high rise buildings are being developed. Since land is a limited resource, this is a better solution. Rights on vertical strata in the same parcel need to be recorded technically and legally in cadastral data as well as land registers. In Nepali context, despite some limited legal provisions for recording 3D cadastral data, there is still a gap in recording spatial information technically. On the other hand, due to the lack of clear spatial information recording and limited provisions for recording in land registers, land disputes are also arising. However, an increase in land dispute cases is not the only issue; there are a huge number of reasons related to legal and technical provisions in land administration. Therefore, in order to minimize land dispute cases, 4D cadastre can provide a better solution. The paper discusses the legal provisions of 3D cadastre and its need in the context of Nepal, along with the need for 4D cadastre to support in reducing land dispute cases.

Towards Quality Management Procedures in 3D Cadastre

The 3D cadastre presents a modern approach to the development of cadastral information systems, with the role of improving current cadastral systems and overcoming the challenges of a 2D-based approach. Technological advancements, standardization, and scientific research in recent decades have contributed to the development and definition of the 3D cadastre. This positioned the 3D cadastre as an integral part of the future of land administration. However, every country needs to define a solution for itself based on its own legal system and cadastral tradition, while at the same time relying on international standardization and research. Once a 3D cadastral system is developed, it is crucial to ensure the monitoring, evaluation, and maintenance of both the quality of the cadastral data and the system itself throughout its lifecycle. Since 3D cadastres involve geometric data, quality management procedures must address both geometric and alphanumeric data. In this paper, we analyze and present the quality management procedures that should be included during designing, implementing, and maintaining a 3D cadastral system. Some examples based on real cadastral data were used to emphasize the need for improvement in quality management. The presented quality management procedures require further development in order to meet country-specific requirements and to fully support the 3D cadastre information systems.

Registration of apartments and office spaces in 3D land administration – A case study in Croatia

Due to the needs of modern society, cadastral systems should be designed to support three dimensional (3D) spatial data. One of many possible approaches for implementing a 3D cadastre, in countries such as Croatia, is to establish a Building Register as a transitional register between 2D and 3D cadastres, where data about buildings and infrastructure would be collected, gradually adapted to the data model of 3D cadastre, and finally migrated to the 3D cadastre database. Sources for establishing the Building Register can be based on the records of state surveys, the register of administrative units, the land book, data managed by local and regional self-government units, data from construction documentation according to special regulations in the field of spatial planning, data managed by the building and infrastructure managers, as well as from other sources. A significant element of the 3D cadastre would be the inclusion of representations of buildings and units of use, as well as public utility infrastructure and complex spatial real-life entities (e.g., bridges, tunnels, overpasses, underpasses, overlapping of constructed objects with natural facilities, large shopping malls with more underground and overhead floors etc.). This paper presents a conceptual model of a 3D cadastre in Croatia by establishing the Building Register with focus on unit of use of real properties, namely apartments and office spaces. The paper also summarizes the current situation regarding the Croatian Land Administration System (LAS) and proposes a conceptual model for modelling unit of use of real properties. Additionally, a proposal is made herein to assign unique identifiers to buildings and their parts in a logical manner which would be intuitive and clear to citizens of Croatia, citizens of European Union and citizens of Croatia neighboring countries. The proposed methodology of determining unique identifiers could provide the means for easier navigation in 3D space and better understanding of spatial information by lay citizens, by institutions or emergency services.

3D CHANGE DETECTION FOR SEMI-AUTOMATIC UPDATE OF BUILDINGS IN 3D CITY MODELS

Abstract. Automatic update of 3D city models has become a crucial operation in the context of urban digital twins. It commonly relies on a reconstruction from ALS point clouds. However, frequent reconstructions due to a dynamic urban environment are resource-intensive and lack change information about the scene. In this paper, we present a novel framework which aims to combine an instance change detection approach based on a distance-computing algorithm, geometric features and thresholding with a building reconstruction algorithm to ensure an efficient geometric, semantic and thematic (change labeling) update of an existing 3D city model. This approach comprises three stages spanning from data preparation to the integration of change results in the updated model. First, we prepare our input data. Next, we assess the changes between the two epochs. This process involves two stages. New and lost buildings are extracted in the first, and the changed and unchanged in the other. The results of the change detection are evaluated using standard evaluation metrics. The evaluation results are encouraging considering the various sources of errors. Finally, unchanged buildings are kept in the model, while the changed and new ones are reconstructed using Geoflow3D. The final model is semantically augmented using a change attribute. Since the 3D city model undergoes an update rather than complete reconstruction, the tracking of both geometric and semantic changes of some buildings can be made possible through a versioning system. The change information can be leveraged in multiple applications like 3D cadastre, urban inventory, urban planning…

Three-dimensional property: Current development trends on the Polish example

Abstract 126The majority of modern European legislations traditionally follows the concept of land ownership derived from Roman law. It is based on the assumption that the owner’s rights are unlimited in spatial terms. Within this understanding, the spatial scope of ownership extends to open space above and below a specific part of the land’s surface, delineated two-dimensionally. Several exceptions to the general underlying approach have been successively introduced in particular European legal systems in the course of historical development. These include, in the first place, building leases and apartment ownership as well as separate ownership of buildings. Furthermore, widely accepted limitations as to the vertical scope of ownership stem from specific regulations in the fields of mining law, geological law, water law and aviation law. Another manifestation of departure from the traditional concept of land ownership are legal solutions falling into the category of three-dimensional (3D) property, which is of increasing interest nowadays in view of growing needs for new forms of ownership and land use in densely built urban areas. At the core of the concept of 3D property in the strict sense lies the possibility to divide the space into distinct layers defined by horizontal and vertical planes, and to create so-called three-dimensional immovable properties which constitute independent objects of property rights. Such 3D units can serve multiple above- and underground investment purposes. Regulations regarding different models of 3D property rights have already been adopted in a number of countries in Europe and worldwide. Recently, conceptual work on layered ownership has been undertaken in Poland, which has opened a discussion in the legal scholarship on the future legislative changes to be implemented in order to introduce the notion of 3D property to domestic law. In parallel with these tendencies, the idea of 3D cadastre is being promoted. It offers 127the possibility to register real estate objects located at different levels. Worthy of note in this regard is also the impact of the current technological advancements on increasing the investment potential of urban space through 3D property formation. This article elaborates, first, on the general concept and selected types of 3D property rights existing in national jurisdictions. Against this background, the proposal for the new legal construct of layered ownership has been discussed with particular consideration of the possible ways of adapting it to the Polish property law framework. Some of the opportunities and challenges brought about by the 3D property rights development have been then outlined in the context of extensive implementation of emerging technologies in real estate transactions.

THE ROLE OF 3D CADASTRES IN ENSURING THE INVIOLABILITY OF PRIVATE PROPERTY RIGHTS

The article analyzes the possibilities of the history of the creation of a 3D cadastre -three-dimensional computer modeling. The author reveals the advantages of 3D cadastre over two-dimensional modeling and, based on the analysis of advanced foreign experience, analyzes the legal, institutional and technical aspects of the application of this type of artificial intelligence in the national cadastral system.

Analysis of the accuracy of cadastral surveys using UaVs

This article is dedicated to analyzing the accuracy of cadastral surveys using uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs). It explores the efficiency and precision of surveys conducted with UAVs in the context of cadastral work. The article examines the methods and technologies used to ensure high accuracy of geospatial data in the cadastral field through UAVs. Utilizing cutting-edge technologies and analyzing research results, the article highlights the possibilities and limitations of UAV applications in cadastral surveys and land mapping tasks. The research findings can benefit geodesy, cartography, and cadastre professionals, as well as developers and operators of uncrewed aerial vehicles. This work investigates a network of phototriangulation conducted using uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs). Network parameters evaluated include the number of images, flight altitude, camera focal length, image size, pixel size, and coverage area. The images were processed using Agisoft Metashape Professional software. The main results of automatic image measurement are provided, including the number of tie points in the network, average ray intersection residuals, and random root mean square errors of ground points. The work shows that the provided accuracy characteristics need to provide more information for a reliable assessment of results. Despite optimistic results, the accuracy distribution may need to be improved for confident cadastral data quality. A modernized software complex for phototriangulation calculation, BlockMSG, was used for a more detailed assessment. It is noted that the calculation results correspond to all initial data of the Agisoft Metashape program but without additional information and analysis of possible errors. The paper also discusses the importance of measurement accuracy and its impact on creating a 3D cadastre. Data on the distribution of linear errors of points are presented, indicating the importance of choosing the number of images to obtain accurate coordinates. The primary focus is the need for a thorough analysis of results and possible error sources to ensure high-quality cadastral data. Keywords: accuracy, cadastral surveys, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), geodetic methods, geospatial data, analysis.

Профессиональная подготовка будущих специалистов в области кадастрового учета и регистрации прав к графической визуализации объектов недвижимости

The research aims to theoretically justify the use of 3D modeling and graphic design as a means of professional training of undergraduate students in the field of “Land management and cadastre” to solve practical tasks based on visualization of three-dimensional objects. The paper presents the stages of training future specialists in the field of cadastre and registration of rights in the basics of creating three-dimensional models in the professional sphere and their graphic design. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the original elaboration of the content of the discipline “Graphic (spatial) visualization of real estate objects” for the training of undergraduate students in the field of “Land management and cadastre” based on the integrated combination of studying the fundamentals of 3D modeling and graphic design as a tool for visualizing information and data. The author believes that this combination is necessitated by the need to educate students on the comprehensive solution to a professional task that requires creating a three-dimensional model and its design and represents the basis for understanding the essence of 3D cadastre. As a result of the research, examples of practice-oriented tasks within three interconnected modules of the discipline “Graphic (spatial) visualization of real estate objects” for undergraduate students in the field of land management and real estate cadastre are presented.

Kriterijumi za primenu hibridnog modela 3D katastra u Srbiji

3D cadastre as a modern approach to the development of the cadastral information system brings many advantages and solves the difficulties that the current cadastral system faces when it comes to registration and visualization of complex 3D situations. Accordingly, transitioning to a 3D cadastral system requires significantly more resources because it is necessary to collect, process, store, maintain, and distribute data in three dimensions. To open a more accessible path to implementing a 3D cadastre, a hybrid model is one of the proposed approaches. This implies that current 2D cadastral data are used as much as possible, and that in locations where it is not possible to unambiguously present properties and boundaries, a 3D approach is used. In this paper, the basic criteria defining when a 3D approach is necessary within the hybrid model are discussed and presented. A basic assessment of the relationship between 2D and 3D approaches is provided within a case study.

3D Real Estate Cadastre: Risks Associated with Digital Innovation

Statistical data on the statistics of the statistics of terms, relevant problems of the three-dimensional real estate cadastre, are applied and analyzed. It is noted that the creation of the public law company "Roskadastr" and the Unified Digital Platform "National Spatial Data System", on the basis of which information collected by a number of government agencies is integrated, is an incentive for conducting large-scale convergent research and a good reason for predicting the risks, associated with the formation of a three-dimensional real estate cadastre. Three-dimensional real estate cadastre Solution as a set of three-dimensional models in electronic form, reflecting the most significant physical (spatial) parameters of real estate objects. The factors stimulating and limiting the maintenance of a three-dimensional real estate cadastre are called. Determine the most significant negative consequences of maintaining a three-dimensional cadastre associated with the human cognitive sphere. For a three-dimensional real estate cadastre reflecting the parameters of the material world, the risks of information loss are not excessive assignment of the possibility of restoration of the possibility of restoration based on the requirement of the existing organism, which creates a voluminous registration and judicial system in a state of chaos or systemic uncertainty. It is concluded that conducting interdisciplinary research in this area and identifying risks as a result of technology assessment and social and humanitarian expertise is a matter of the future. At the same time, the most important parameters of regulatory regulation of the regulation of relations are the volumes available with the maintenance of a three-dimensional real estate cadastre, the volumes already today and should be reduced, at least, to establishing a ban on the inclusion in the public domain of a database sufficient to create three-dimensional models of real estate objects located in the operational management of state institutions, including government agencies.

Creation of virtual models of buildings for the formation of unified real estate complexes as a part of land and cadastral works

The article presents the results of the research project to create 3D models of buildings from digital images using a smartphone camera and the Agisoft Photoscan Professional software, comparing them with data obtained with an electronic total station. The authors outlined the possibilities of using the described technologies for the development of 3D cadastre, which can simplify creation of virtual models through the adaptation of modern widgets. The technological sequence of creating a building model in a virtual format and the accuracy of linear measurements are considered here. The paper contains the results of determining the area and the value of the mean square error. The authors presume that these technologies can be used for the development of 3D cadastre in the formation of unified real estate complexes as a part of land cadastral works, as well as for design and reconstruction solutions.

Selected legal aspects of the 3D cadastre – a comparative study of Poland and Slovakia

Selected legal aspects of the 3D cadastre – a comparative study of Poland and Slovakia

Geometric Model of 3D Cadastre for Strata Title using 2D and 3D Data Integration Approach

In order to establish the Land Administration System (LAS) in Strata Title case, the concept of 3D Cadastre is used widely. The semantic and geometric of 3D spatial unit (3D rights) in the building must be conducted first, but to provide such 3D spatial data is complicated, especially related to the owner privacy. Furthermore, the higher the Level of Detail (LOD) and Level of Information (LOI) of 3D model, the more complex the data acquisition and the higher accuracy needed will be. Therefore, the concept of 3D Cadastre could be adopted where the availability of 2D data still usable, such as the data of as-built-drawing of the building. However, how to do the integration of 2D and 3D spatial data and their accuracy analysis needs to be examined first, as the purpose of this study. The case study of this research is ‘Labtek IXC’, located in Ganesha Campus of Institut Teknologi Bandung. The 3D data was conducted using High-Definition Survey in available room and the 2D data was as-built-drawing in unavailable room (available and unavailable due the ownership privacy aspect). The High-Definition Survey produced the point cloud data. The point cloud data was processed using common steps such as filtering and cloud-to-cloud registration. The data modelling method was used the parametric modelling based on the registered point cloud and as-built-drawing of the building. The result of this study is the integration of 3D model. The geometric of the 3D model was compared with the reference size of the room from the distometer measurement. The geometric accuracy of the 3D model produced satisfactory result, that is 0.019 m.

Trends in 3D cadastre – A literature survey

The formation and alteration of real property and rights, restrictions and responsibilities are important parts of land administration. Research on the distribution of publications in the three-dimensional (3D) cadastral domain has been in focus as a specialised part of real property research during the last decades. A number of literature surveys on research trends in the domain show a growing number of publications during the last decades. The number of publications have increased considerably within a range of topics, classified into legal, technical, registration and organisational categories of 3D property. The purpose of the research presented here is to contribute to these analyses of the number and thematic distribution of the 3D cadastral domain literature by analysing three aspects: 1) To add to the recent study by including 3D cadastre publications published during 2021 (Paasch and Paulsson, 2021a, 2021b); 2) To briefly analyse the classification of 3D cadastre research in technical programmes and proceedings of major conferences focussing, in total or in part, on 3D cadastre. 3) The results are used to contribute to the discussion regarding if the 3D cadastral domain is too diverse today to talk about a single 3D cadastral domain. An input to the discussion of what constitutes a domain is provided from an analysis of another land administration research topic that is often addressed in relation to 3D real property research; the international standard for land administration, the Land Administration Domain Model, LADM, ISO 19152.

3D crowdsourced parametric cadastral mapping: Pathways integrating BIM/IFC, crowdsourced data and LADM

This paper is part of a doctoral dissertation (PhD) research aligned with global trends aiming to develop practical technical tools for the collection, management and visualization of three-dimensional (3D) property rights in urban areas. Recently, the Building Information Models (BIMs) claim a prominent position in the field of 3D cadastres and the digital twins of the cities. In addition to all other building information, the BIM can also provide data about the exact boundaries of all kind of legal spaces (e.g., property ownership rights as well as land use restrictions), under the support of Industry Foundation Classes (IFCs). However, the utilization of BIMs for 3D cadastral surveys is still accompanied with two main drawbacks. The first refers to BIMs limited availability, as till now they mainly encounter in new large constructions. The second refers to the complexity in defining the exact geometric location of the legal boundaries regarding the exterior/interior partitions of the construction and of the common spaces. The latter parameter is formed on the basis of the current legal legislation in each country. Through in-depth investigation of the current legal framework of each country it may be possible to visualize the various 3D legal spaces within complex constructions and thus to facilitate the integration of existing BIMs in the development of 3D cadasters that will enable a better understanding and communication of all involved parties in the operation of cross-boundary real estate markets. In parallel, crowdsourcing has already been proved to be a powerful data collection method for the initial participatory implementation of fast, reliable and affordable 3D cadastral surveys, utilizing all capabilities provided by the latest low-cost devices, mobile services (m-services), open-source software (OSS) and the international standard of Land Administration Domain Model (LADM ISO 19152). If no precise 3D building models are already available, the currently available 2D architectural plans combined with the additional geometric and descriptive cadastral information may be utilized for a participatory crowdsourced cadastral survey of the 3D property units. In this paper a ‘two-route’ crowdsourced approach is described. This approach suggests both the use of existing BIMs – those available – to proceed with 3D crowdsourced cadastral surveys of those constructions, as well as the use of 2D georeferenced basemaps (e.g., orthophotos for the compilation of 2D crowdsourced cadastral surveys, and all existing architectural floor plans of the constructions) to proceed with 3D crowdsourced cadastral surveys of all other constructions. A database schema describing the linkage between LADM standard, BIM/IFC and 3D crowdsourced geometric and descriptive cadastral information is developed and presented. A hybrid mobile application enabling the manipulation of BIM/IFC descriptive data – if existing; the collection of 3D crowdsourced geometric and descriptive information by property owners/users/non-professionals; the registration of the cadastral data and their relationships within a LADM-based cadastral geodatabase; the automated generation of 3D property unit models as block models (LoD1), using Model-driven approach; and the objects visualization in real-time, are developed. An investigation regarding the legally correct representation of the location of property unit boundaries, focusing mainly in the Greek territory is conducted. A practical experiment for each one of the cases of the ‘two-route’ crowdsourced approach is implemented, for two multi-storey buildings in the city of Athens, Greece. The potentials of the proposed crowdsourced solution as well as the achieved geometric accuracy – in the absence of BIM – are discussed and assessed. The results show that integrating BIM data with cadastral information derived from crowdsourcing, may significantly contribute to the implementation of 3D Cadastres, providing also a better visual understanding of 3D property rights. Nonetheless, even in the absence of a BIM the achieved accuracy seems to satisfy the cadastral specifications of the Greek cadaster enhancing the potential of exploiting crowdsourced data in the initial phases of the cadastral formal procedures.

Proposing a multi-jurisdictional framework for 3D digital cadastre in Australia and New Zealand

Recent studies in Australia and New Zealand have explored various technological, legal, and institutional aspects of 3D cadastre modernisation. The majority of these studies concentrate on a single jurisdiction. The reason is that each jurisdiction is in charge of its own cadastral system. As a result, each jurisdiction's standards, rules, and processes for implementing 3D digital cadastre are unique. In Australia and New Zealand, however, the Intergovernmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping (ICSM) has established national frameworks for cadastral systems. To implement 3D digital cadastre at a national level, it is vital to identify the variations and commonalities across existing cadastral systems. Comparisons of 3D cadastre for several civil law countries as well as international standards have been undertaken in the present literature. However, common law jurisdictions such as Australian states and New Zealand have not been compared in terms of 3D cadastre. Therefore, the main goal of this study is to propose a multi-jurisdictional framework that includes variations and commonalities in the current methods adopted for subdividing ownership of vertically placed properties in order to support 3D digital cadastre in all Australian and New Zealand jurisdictions. The proposed framework comprises four layers: definition, core, interoperability and jurisdictional. This framework would potentially serve as a starting point for building a nationally integrated digital data ecosystem for 3D cadastre in Australia and New Zealand.

Visual Perception of Property Rights in 3D

Despite the already advanced work on the construction of jurisdictional 3D cadastre models in many parts of the world and the technical feasibility of building very detailed 3D models of cities, relatively few specialists have focused on the aspects of visualizing property rights in three dimensions. Therefore, to complement the analyses carried out so far in this area, this research aims to investigate the perception of the visualization of multidimensional real estate data using different visual variables and by different audiences. The main contribution of the conducted research to the development of 3D cadastre visualizations is to start a discussion on the differences in their perception among real estate professionals and those who have no experience in this area and may have to use multidimensional property data. The research was conducted using a questionnaire-based survey method with the computer-assisted web interview (CAWI) technique. The questionnaire was completed by students of a course related to real estate law (geodetic science) and those who do not have regular contact with it (environmental engineering, medicine, sports, mechanics, and management). As a result of the survey, it emerged that the group studying geodetic science performed better on average than students in other fields of study. Additionally, the conducted survey confirmed the existing knowledge of the perception of the visualization of property rights in three dimensions. According to it, visualizations of property rights in 3D should use color. The use of transparency helps in visualisations made in grayscale but interferes with more complex colorful objects.

Analysis of the prospects for the development of 3D cadastral visualisation

Motives: In the past twenty years, considerable progress has been made in 3D real estate cadastres and 3D visualisation technologies. These developments require advanced solutions for the visualisation of 3D cadastral objects. Aim: The main aim of this study was to propose an optimal 3D cadastre visualisation strategy that accounts for user needs, the types of visualised data, and visualisation platforms. Results: The optimal 3D cadastre visualisation strategy was determined by performing a SWOT/TOWS analysis. Both internal and external factors that can influence the development of 3D cadastre visualisation policies were considered in the analysis. The results of the study were used to propose an aggressive strategy (based on the identified strengths and opportunities) for the development of 3D cadastre visualisation.

Report on the round table in the State Duma dedicated to the cadastral reform

Currently, the introduction of a 3D cadastre of real estate objects in Russia is quite relevant, since using a two-dimensional cadastre it is impossible to keep records of various multi-level objects such as bridges, tunnels, road junctions, etc. In this scientific work, the most time-consuming stage of a three–dimensional cadastre is considered – 3D modeling of various real estate objects and obtaining of spatial information about them. The article analyzes two main methods of spatial data acquisition - aerial photography and three–dimensional laser scanning. The advantages and disadvantages of these methods are considered in this paper. In conclusion, the authors advise to use the mentioned methods of obtaining data to create 3D models in a three-dimensional real estate cadastre.