2nd Century BC Research Articles

Камни из ритуальных сосудов в скифских погребальных комплексах на левобережье Нижнего Днестра

The paper deals with 221 burnt stones from the Scythian graves found on the left bank of the Lower Dniester dated to the 5th—2nd centuries BC. All of them, if it was fixed, come from wooden or handmade ritual vessels. Stones of approximately the same size and without traces of processing were used as heating elements. In all cases, traces of burning were recorded — soot spots and characteristic fracturing. Petrological thin sections showed the mineral composition of the rocks and their structural and textural features. These are, as a rule, sandstones and, much less often, other rocks (carbonate, igneous and metamorphic). The vast majority of stones are of local origin, and only a few are imported. At present, it is obvious that the tradition of fumigating graves among the Scythians of the North-West Black Sea region appeared no later than the 5th century BC. Initially, wooden vessels served as containers for red-hot pebbles and organic balms. Starting from the 3rd century BC as vessels for the same pebbles, handmade incense cups began to be used, widely known not only in the cemeteries of the 3rd—2nd centuries BC near the Glinoe Village and in other sites of the Dniester region, but also in a number of other Scythian sites, situated westwards (Dobruja, Lower Danube region) and eastwards (Bug, Dnieper, Crimea, Azov and Don regions). Keywords: Scythians, graves, 5th—2nd centuries BC, left bank of the Lower Dniester, wooden and handmade ritual vessels, petrography, rocks

Second life of damaged things: repairing and modifying jewellery from the Crimea in the Sarmatian period

Crimean jewellery from the Sarmatian period (2nd century BC – 4th century AD) includes a small but interesting group of adornments with traces of damage and repair. These artefacts were elements of grave inventories of the people of the Late Scythian and Sarmatian cultures – deposited exclusively in female and child graves. Most of the repaired personal ornaments are earrings and bracelets. Their quality is usually very low. The existence of repairs made jewellery look less attractive and they were limited to modifications allowing their owners to use such adornments again. The general quality of the repairs seems to indicate that they were performed by peoplelacking expert knowledge of jewellery making.

Дифференциация населения джетыасарской археологической культуры по данным палеопатологии (по материалам раскопок могильников Алтын-Асар 4)

For the first time, a contextual consideration of some paleopathological manifestations on the adult skulls from the excavations of the Altyn-Asar 4 (n=363) burial grounds is proposed, which makes it possible to indirectly assess social stratification degree of the population of the Eastern Aral Sea region and the chronological dynamics of some indicators reflecting the quality of life of the population of the era of migrations. Comparison of the total samples selected according to chronology (2nd century BC – 2nd century AD, 2nd – 4th centuries, 4th – 6th centuries) revealed consistently high frequencies of enamel hypoplasia, intercalary bones on the cranial vault and metopic suture. In the sample of 2nd – 4th centuries, a downward trend in the frequencies of caries and abscesses was traced. When correlated with the type of burial structures (crypts of 2 types, soil pits of 4 types), a better state of health of the dental system was revealed in individuals in crypts of the first type, and, in general, in those buried in crypts compared to those buried in the soil pits. The most diverse picture is obtained from the analysis of the materials from the detached cemeteries. The frequencies of discretely varying features confirm the previous conclusions about the heterogeneity of the anthropological composition in the Jetyasar population, in particular, of the migrant origin of those buried in the Altyn-Asar 4m burial ground. Variations in the frequency of dental pathologies, anemia, and enamel hypoplasia may reflect differences in the lifestyle and quality of life of those buried in different necropolises, for example, different levels of dietary stress. A high number of skull injuries, including fatal wounds caused by military weapons, indicate the aggressive nature of the social environment. The greatest number of such damages is observed in the 2nd – 4th centuries‘ series.

The Joy of Knowledge Put Into Practice. The Cosmotechnical View on Acquiring Knowledge in Ancient China

"Classical Chinese thought slowly formed from the 9th century BCE onward through the Spring and Autumn era but reached its pivotal point during the so-called Warring States era (5th to 2nd centuries BCE). According to historical records, during these three hundred years more than four hundred wars of different scales raged across the Chinese world. These wars brought with them their own consequences like famines and abject poverty, terrible inequality and disillusionment. An intellectual history forming in these conditions understandably and inevitably was influenced by these conditions. In this context, the Hong Kong philosopher Yuk Hui presents his thesis of “cosmotechnics”, the view that merely understanding the world is not enough, it is paramount to change it for the betterment of people’s lives. This is the theoretical underpinning of much of classical Chinese thought, according to Yuk Hui, and therefore also for the drive to acquire knowledge. Thus, one unique aspect of classical Chinese thought is its interminable insistence on how man’s every action must have a reason beyond that action itself and any sort of philosophizing that does not lead to practice in changing the environment for the good of the people inhabiting it, is a wasted and useless thought. Therefore, there are a number of words and concepts related to the acquisition of knowledge in Classical and modern Chinese, like “learning” 學, “teaching” 教, “discussion” 論, “argumentation” 辯, and so on, but all these are encompassed within “the way” 道, specifically the “correct way of doing a thing”, i.e.: actual practice, rather than mere thought alone. I aim to present several examples of this from remote Chinese antiquity and classical Chinese thought within the framework of what I term “cosmotechnical joy” stemming from making people’s lives better. Keywords: China, philosophy, thought, knowledge, pragmatism, Confucianism, Daoism, legalism"

An overlooked 2nd-century BC decree by the polis of the Orthieians, Thessaly

The National Archive of Monuments in Athens contains a dossier with documents regarding complications relating to road construction works in 1905 at the then-unknown archaeological site of Kedros in Western Thessaly. Among the documents is a paper copy of a fragmentary inscription of the 2nd century BC, reportedly found at the site. The preserved text of the inscription indicates that it was an honorific decree set up by the polis of the Orthieians to a benefactor from the nearby city of Gomphoi.

The humans of ancient Hermione. The necropolis in the light of bioarchaeology

Bioarchaeology has the potential to substantially inform about ancient lifeways through osteological analyses of the remains of the once-living individuals. This article provides insights of the demography and health of the people of ancient Hermione (Geometric–Roman period). A minimum number of 85 individuals from the Hermione necropolis was osteologically analysed. Although the analysis was limited by taphonomic processes and the long period of use of the necropolis, the results point towards a population affected by urban hazards, such as infections, high child mortality, and, possibly, decreased opportunity to survive into senescence. Further, stunted growth, evidence of general stress primarily in the juvenile skeletal assemblage, and a possible case of child abuse informs of the hardships experienced by children in ancient Hermione. The osteological analysis also confirms that the two individuals buried in the “Warrior Tomb” were of both sexes. The skeletal remains were unfortunately too poorly preserved for detailed analyses of trauma or other health-related patterns. The practice of burying all age groups and both sexes in collective graves between the 6th–5th and 2nd centuries BC might correspond to the necropolis as a communal burial ground, while older and younger graves were assigned for single individuals only.

New evidence of roman governors and officers on glandes inscriptae from Republican Hispania

Four glandes inscriptae from the Iberian Peninsula are presented in this paper. For two of them a connection to the Republican governors C. Flaminius and L. Mummius is proposed, and therefore a date in the 2nd century BC. A third slingshot bullet was most likely cast at the beginning of the governorship of the proconsul C. Valerius Flaccus, c. 92/91 BC. On the fourth specimen two names are inscribed, Afranius and Messalla, presumably two military leaders; it is carefully suggested that they could have been active during the Sertorian War. The communis opinio regarding the use of glandes inscriptae on the Iberian Peninsula must be modified: rather than being a phenomenon of the 1st century BC, peculiar to the Sertorian War (82‑72 BC) and the confrontation between Caesar and the Pompeian faction (48‑45 BC), they can now be traced back as far as the early 2nd century BC.

Ancient Repairs on the Alexander Mosaic from Pompeii

Every so often throughout antiquity, cities, structures and objects were damaged to varying degrees as a result of wars, earthquakes, floods and fires, and became unusable. However, similar to the present day, in some cases it was possible to maintain their function by carrying out repairs. Traces of such repairs are visible on mosaic flooring, one of the structural elements most affected by these destructions.
 Since mosaics are composed of lots of small pieces, they can quickly disintegrate in any destructive situation and fall apart easily. Through the ages, the loss of components occurred as a result of not only great destruction and devastation, but also of wear due to overuse. In such cases, in order to reduce the growth of the damaged area, various repair techniques were used, and the use of the structures/spaces continued. The craftsmen doing these repairs sometimes tried to restore the floor and its decoration elements to its original appearance, and other times utilised different materials in order to re-open the space as quickly as possible. The location and dimension of the damage as well as the repair methods on the mosaic provide us with information on the techniques of the craftsmen and the practices of the period.
 Found at the Casa del Fauno (VI 12, 2) in Pompeii on October 24, 1831 and dated to the end of the 2nd century BC (120 BC) (Pappalardo - Ciardiello 2010: 153) the Alexander Mosaic is one of the most well-known mosaics today, as well as being famous enough in the period it was made to be mentioned in historical and literary sources. The original is preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum (MANN, inventory number 10020). It depicts the battle of Issus (333 BC) or Gaugamela (331 BC) between Alexander the Great and Darius III (Pappalardo - Ciardiello 2010: 154; Giulierini et al. 2020: 105). Despite having undergone repairs following the extensive damage it sustained in the earthquake of 62 AD, the mosaic never regained its former appearance. It is a rare example, as it was in some parts repaired with tesserae and some other parts repaired using mortar. Studies of the Alexander Mosaic suggest that these two different mending techniques belong to separate attempts from different periods. This article, as a result of detailed examinations, discusses the possibility that repairs made with both tesserae and mortar may have been applied simultaneously after the same destruction.

New crops in the 1st millennium ce in northern Italy

AbstractIn order to identify new crops in the 1st millennium ce in northern Italy, a complex and diversified territory, archaeobotanical macroremains from 155 sites dating between the 2nd century bce and 12th century ce were analysed. In more than half of the sites, taxa were encountered that had never previously been recorded from the area. The new crops are about 30, mainly (~ 70%) fruit plants in the broad sense, which have a clear peak in this time period. Based on the available data, the most prominent time for the introduction of new food plants (both imports and cultivars) seems to have been the Roman Imperial period (1st–2nd century ce), but also later, in Late Antiquity (3rd–6th century ce) and the Middle Ages (7th–12 century ce), there was no lack of new arrivals. Some fruit trees, such as Prunus persica (peach) and Pinus pinea (stone pine) immediately played an important role, and have continued to do so over time, as these are still grown in the area now.

Polychromy in the Iberian Sculptures of Cerrillo Blanco: Analytical Study, Historical Context and State of Conservation

In the environs of the city of Ipolca, today’s town of Porcuna (Jaén), the Iberian civilisation left behind one of the most outstanding sculptural ensembles of Antiquity, made up of 27 groups of figures and hundreds of fragments dating from the 7th to the 2nd centuries BC. Despite its great relevance, there are very few scientific studies that serve as a basis for understanding the many questions that remain about how they were made, their significance, and their relationship to the culture that gave rise to them. This article studies the polychrome techniques used in the sculptures and puts them into context in Iberian art. The research has been carried out on original pieces from the Archaeological Museum of Jaén using stereoscopic optical microscopy (SOM), petrographic microscopy (PM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDX).

The Aramaic Inscriptions from Mount Gerizim: Production, Identity, and Resistance

Abstract The Aramaic inscriptions from Hellenistic Mount Gerizim have been the object of intense scholarly interest since their publication almost 20 years ago. Research has particularly focused on the ways that the inscriptions can inform our understanding of the emergence of a Samaritan group identity which was distinct from that of the Jews. This article seeks to contribute to these discussions by addressing 2 interrelated issues. Firstly, drawing on research by other scholars, it tentatively suggests that these inscriptions can be divided into two groups which represent different phases of production. Secondly, it explores the reasons for the apparent introduction of a sense of place in the later inscriptions, considering the broader political and administrative history of the district of Samaria in the 2nd century BCE.

Exploring mudbrick architecture and its re-use in Artaxata, Armenia, during the 1st millennium BC. A multidisciplinary study of earthen architecture in the Armenian Highlands.

Mudbrick constructions are extremely common in ancient western Asia, including the 1st millennium structures of the southern Caucasus and Armenian highlands. However, in the Caucasus the geoarchaeological study of these materials to provide insight into building practices and social structure is a topic little researched, especially when focusing on the longue durée. Artashat/Artaxata (Ararat region, Armenia) was the capital of the Armenian Kingdom of the Artaxiads, founded in the eighties of the 2nd century BC, but even before this the site was occupied in the Chalcolithic period, (ca. 5200-3500 BC), Early Iron Age (ca. 1200-900 BC) and in the Urartian period (ca. 800-600 BC) as well. All the previous occupation phases showed communities that made extensive use of earthen constructions as determined during past and recent archaeological excavations. This multidisciplinary study seeks to examine mudbrick architecture as a proxy for environmental and social interactions during the 1st millennium BC combining geoarchaeology, archaeobotany and building archaeology. We analyzed changes and continuities in architectural form and practices, alongside reconstruction of technological and social processes, to identify issues of raw material procurement, attestation of re-use, and consistency of building practices. The results of the geoarchaeological analysis of the earthen building materials used in different parts of the ancient city point to a re-use of materials over time.

Chronology of Violas according to Researchers

This work aims to reinvestigate, organize and centralize translations of terms cited by researchers as related to the ancestry of “VIOLAS”: belted box chordophones, better known for being part of orchestras - the so-called “family of violins”, where they are “bowed” instruments, that is, played primarily by bow - but also chordophones of similar shape, “fingered” (played directly by the fingers or some objects popularly called plectrum, as guitar picks).
 It was observed that most scholars would have assumed that “viola” and its variations in different languages would have been just names of bowed instruments, among other inaccuracies repeated in a chain for centuries, so it would be necessary to point out these situations in order to subsidize new studies in several areas of Science. The developments were based on the Dialectical Methodology and the historical-social contexts were estimated from the oldest records found for each variation of names, in the main European languages, since Latin used at 2nd century BC. The database was created through extensive research of sources pointed out by different types of researches at different times.
 Among the main reasons for carrying out this kind of reinvestigation is to include in previous investigative equations new factors such as the possibility of the existence of fingered instruments in the records. The main processes carried out were: reanalyze translations most used in publications; observe changes and variations of names among the different languages and identify possible patterns over the period.

RESIDENTIAL HOUSES OF THE NORTH-WESTERN CRIMEA IN THE LATE SCYTHIAN PERIOD: BASIC LAYOUT PATTERNS AND ANALOGIES

The article summarizes the study of the layouts of houses built on the northwestern coast of the Crimea in the last quarter of the 2nd century BC – early 2nd century AD. Particular attention is paid to changes in the main layout patterns, as well as the search for their analogies. The author analyzes 28 layouts of the best preserved Late Scythian houses. All of them are multi-chamber structures, most of them have courtyards. The main layout patterns differ in the location of the premises with respect to the courtyard. It was possible to determine periods of dominance of certain patterns. The layouts of Late Scythian houses in the North-Western Crimea become more complicated with time. However, in addition to the “internal evolution”, residential construction also experiences a strong influence of classical architecture, which manifests itself at different stages. There is also a connection with other regions of the Crimean Scythia.

우리나라 남해안의 쪽구들 주거지 등장과 연해주 초기철기시대 문화

In this paper, we investigated the relationship with Neukdo by comparing and analyzing the ridge dwellings of the Tuanjie-Krounovka culture in the Russian Maritime Province and the bone mound remains of the Yankovsky culture. The plan and cross-sectional shapes of the early Ondol identified here are the most common structures in Nekdo Island. Most of the stone pits were installed around the 2nd century BC, when the period of the Nekdo ruins began. A large amount of deer bones, antlers, and bone fragments are produced on Nekdo Island, but most people were of the opinion that they could not be supplied from the island. In particular, there was an opinion that the two ulna stabs were not an important item in Nekdo, where small iron knives were used, but in the Yankovsky culture, they were mainly used along with iron knives. Also, ornaments with patterns can be seen in the Jankovky culture. Fishing hooks, knives, bone needles, and split harpoons are commonly found. Nekdo’s ‘bone sword’ may be a reproduction of the stone spear of the Yankovsky culture. ‘boggol’ were excavated, but only a small number of them were used, so they were not mainly used. The early Ondol dwellings and bone carvings found on Nekdo Island are a characteristic of the Tuanjie- Krounovka culture and Yankovsky culture of the Maritime Province and the northeastern region, and they provided deer meat and bone carving equipment to Nekdo Island. To prevent corruption, they would have lived on Nekdo Island only in the winter. In the ruins of Nekdo Island, the early Ondol dwellings used for wintering are located on the shell floor or nearby. This shows that decomposition of shellfish was not possible in severe summer and was possible only in winter. The relationship between culture Tuanjie-Krounovka and Yankovsky, which occupied the coast of the Maritime Province since the 3rd century BC, should be studied in the future. In addition, research on the burial methods of Yankovsky culture will be revealed through a separate paper.

Investigation of the burial mounds of early nomads of the Irtysh river region of Semey

The article introduces materials of monuments studied in the Semeytau and Kokentau mountain ranges. During the period 2014–2018, the research team has unearthed 13 burial mounds, distributed across six burial grounds and groups of burial mounds. The accompanying artifacts comprise iron rods (pins?) and the tail vertebrae of a ram. In three cases (Karatobe burial ground, mounds no. 2 and 3; Karasu-Ushtobe burial ground, mound 1), necklaces crafted from semiprecious stones have been discovered. Armament items are represented by a set of bone and one bronze arrowheads. In general, the ground and inside burial mounds find analogies in the materials of the Kulazhorga type (3rd century BC – 1st century AD) within the Upper Irtysh region, as well as in burial mounds from the early stage (3rd–2nd centuries BC) of the Wusun archaeological culture in the Ile River valley. It is worth noting the proximity of the design features of the burial structures and the subject complex of most of the described mounds with the monuments of Saryarka, first of all, the greatest parallels can be traced among the materials of the monuments of the Karamola type. According to the results of radiocarbon analysis, the objects studied date back to the 5th–3rd centuries BC.

Experimental Work on the Production of Ceramics of the Chirik-Rabat Culture

The article introduces the results, descriptions and analysis of the experiment on the reconstruction of the molding mass and the manufacture of ceramic vessels of the Chirik-Rabat culture (3rd–2nd centuries BC). The site adjacent to the pottery workshops of the Babish-mola 7 archaeological complex (Eastern Aral Sea region) was used as a landfill. There is the Akkyr hill nearby, abounding in reserves of clay raw materials. The experiment was conducted during the field research of the Chirik-Rabat archaeological expedition of the Margulan Institute of Archaeology in 2022. The main objective of this experiment was to determine all aspects of the production cycle for the manufacture of ceramic vessels – from collecting raw materials for the manufacture of ceramics, designing vessels, firing and ending with obtaining the result. During the experimental work, a search was carried out for clay deposits near the Babish-mola oasis along the riverbeds. The process of collecting organic matter (cattle manure) was carried out in the nearest settlement, located 60 km from the Babish-mola monument, for the admixture of chamotte, featureless fragments of ceramics from the monument were used. The vessels were formed on a single-disc turntable.

Digging into lives: Christians and Christianity in the Greek papyri from Egypt

Greek papyri recovered from the sands of Egypt represent a precious source of data for early Christianity. Egypt is the land of the earliest Greek translation of books from the Hebrew Bible. The Greek Old Testament or Septuagint was undertaken within the Jewish community of Alexandria from near the middle of the 3rd to the 2nd century BC. Alexandria became the first centre of Christianity in Egypt. Then, the Christian doctrine spread to the villages of the Egyptian chora. Christian papyri mirror this historical context. The earliest Christian papyri are biblical and literary. Besides these, documentary texts offer unique insights into the everyday life and society of Christians in Egypt. Private letters, in particular, reveal the activities and worries of laymen and women, monks and church officials. Papyrological evidence also enlightens the relationship of Christianity with local religious practices. After an overview of the contribution of papyri to our knowledge of early Christianity, this article will focus on documentary specimens dealing with health issues in the form of requests for healing prayers and amulets written on papyrus. Health was, in fact, a common cause for concern and a central aspect of the daily reality of Christian communities.Contribution: This article contributes to shedding light on the role of papyrological evidence in reconstructing the everyday lives of people in Egypt. Christian documentary papyri are particularly illuminating on the day-to-day life of early Christian communities. Their study expands our socio-cultural understanding of aspects – such as healing – that, although important, are poorly known from the literary tradition.

Himmelsbeobachtungen und deren Messung, von der Regierungszeit des Gudea von Lagash bis zum Almagest des Claudius Ptolemäus

The present article gives an overview on the development of the measurement and practical acquisition of circle section dimensions since the late 3rd millennium BC. In key points, the prerequisites and practical implementation for celestial observations over approx. 1500 years up to the 8th century BC are collected and analyzed, in terms of their logical requirements and connected archaeological findings. A comprehensible and unambiguous calculation is made for the celestial dimensions in cubits used from the 8th to the 2nd century BC, for which estimated values between 2.5 and 2.1 angular degrees have been determined since Kugler 1900 until to recently researchers. Therefore, for the first time, the exact transformation value is presented here. Not only the connections and the further development of this celestial measurement system are presented, but also its coherent adaptation up to the first definition and use of the angular unit measurement, which is still used today, around 200 BC. In addition, some data and their previous interpretation from various sources are put up for discussion, which even include the table of Chords, presented by Ptolemy in his Almagest and their use.

Nine types of iron smelting furnaces in southern Siberia in the first millennium AD: A review of archaeological and chronological data

This article systematizes all currently known archaeological data and radiocarbon dates related to iron-smelting furnaces from Southern Siberia. On the basis of 159 excavated and well-preserved furnaces, nine construction types can be identified. The analysis of a series of radiocarbon dates made it possible to revise previous models about emergence and development of iron metallurgy in Southern Siberia and neighboring regions. We conclude that iron metallurgy developed in the region not in the Scythian time, as has long been assumed, but in the subsequent Xiongnu period of the 2nd century BCE – 2nd century CE. During the 3rd–6th centuries CE, metallurgy flourished, which is expressed in the different types and numerous smelting furnaces that coexisting in the same region. This article raises for the first time the problem we have called the ancient Türkic metallurgy paradox. This inexplicable phenomenon describes the sudden and almost complete disappearance of iron metallurgy in Southern Siberia in the 7th century CE.