2nd Century AD Research Articles

Hereclean-Dâmbul Iazului – An early ‘barbarian’ settlement in front of the Roman complex at Porolissum (Dacia Porolissensis). With an emphasis on some non-residential structures

The settlement of Hereclean-Dâmbul iazului, northwestern Romania, Sălaj County, has been investigated via preventive excavations on several occasions (years 1998‒99, 2004, and 2018). Only a part of the site has been fully researched, presumably an area that was primarily assigned economic functions. It can be defined primarily by the presence of a network of postholes (the results of the last archaeological intervention were only briefly published), to be linked, of course, to the above-ground post structures, with a planimetry which is not easily reconstructed, as well as with questionable explanations as to the purpose of such buildings. At least on some occasions, they are unlikely to be so-called “longhouses”. In at least one case, it could be a sheep shelter, with ethnographic parallels and other observations specified in the text. It was insisted upon a structure that was frequently encountered and understood as a genuine “emblem” for Przeworsk culture bearers. Regardless of the choice of one name or another, we suggested, along with other authors, a neutral expression, namely “rectangular pits with clay-coated and burnt walls”. Their purpose, likely a possible “multifunctionality”, remains obscure, but we are leaning towards a possible link to religion, as too few authors have suggested before. The settlement at Hereclean, like those in the immediate vicinity, along with the currently known funerary finds, operated for a short period of time, placed within a regional/local stage C1a ‒ B2/C1, namely in the last third of the 2nd century AD and towards the beginning of the following century. The position of this settlement in the middle-upper segment of the main access route that reached the Roman frontier over a short distance, namely the valley of the small Zalău River, is of importance. It can be understood that such a “barbarian” presence so close to the limes was accepted and conditioned by the Romans and, presumably, the interplay of the economic interests mattered to both sides.

A possible case of Crouzon syndrome in a female figurine from Bracara Augusta from the 2nd century CE

Artworks are not just objects of beauty but also historical documents that can reveal diseases unknown to ancient physicians, such as congenital disorders. A bronze female figurine from the 2nd century AD, unearthed during excavations in the Roman city of Bracara Augusta, currently the city of Braga, presents intriguing facial features, strongly indicating an underlying medical condition. The abnormal facial traits point to craniofacial dysostosis and, more precisely, Crouzon Syndrome. The portrayed figure wears the walled crown of the city’s patron goddesses, Tyche/Fortuna, the earlier Greek goddess of Fate (or Chance), the patron goddess of Greek and Roman cities. The attribute of the tutelary goddesses is the cornucopia of abundance, symbolizing fertility, wealth and well-being. However, instead of this attribute, the young lady carries a serpent entwined on a rod under her right arm, an attribute related to the cult of health deities like Asclepius (the Roman Aesculapius) and the Latin goddess Fortuna. This essay will discuss the features of this figurine, relating her possible medical condition with the symbology of the walled crown and entwined serpent and her social-cultural and religious status.

The cultural landscape of the Hyblaean Mountains between the 3rd century BC and the 2nd century AD in the light of multidisciplinary research

Power in Syracuse was taken by Hiero II in 270 BC. Then the Hyblaean Mountains, much of which belonged to Syracuse, underwent changes and entered a period of transformations. When the First Punic War began Hiero II signed a treaty with Rome, which ensured long-term stabilization, economic growth and thorough development of the kingdom. His reign was the last period in which Syracusan territory flourished and enjoyed independence. After his death in 215 BC and the fall of Syracuse, the Romans confiscated Syracusan lands and annexed the towns allied with metropolis, also in the Hyblaean Mountains. It should be emphasized that this region represented a deeply-rooted Hellenistic heritage –evident in a variety of public and private buildings associated with developed culture, art, the self-confidence of the inhabitants. But new architecture, everyday objects, inscriptions and other components present already new influences. It is associated with the Roman migration to the newly conquered lands. Later, this region played a role during the conflict between Sextus Pompey and Octavian with its long-term consequences. Thanks to the archaeological sources can be assumed that the result was an influx of Roman veterans as settlers and new material culture, agriculture, breeding and know-how here

Interview with Professor Aaron Hughes: American Orientalism and Understanding the Quran in the Light of Late Antiquity

This study includes our interview with Aaron Hughes, who continued his studies on Islam in the United States. Hughes, a professor at the University of Rochester, is highly knowledgeable and widely recognized in the field of Religious Studies. The questions we posed to Hughes were re-lated to two subjects: American Orientalism and Late Antiquity. As far as we can determine, there are very few studies on these two subjects in Türkiye. This interview will attempt to contribute to the Turkish academic community. The question of which centuries are included in the Late An-tiquity created by Peter Brown is a matter of debate. This period, which generally covers the pe-riod from the 2nd century AD to the end of the 8th century in historiography, is constantly being stretched by researchers in the United States. Garth Fowden, who expanded the period even fur-ther and extended it to a longer period, put forward the theory of the “First Millennium”. This periodization, which has made a great leap forward in the field of history with the studies con-ducted in recent years, has begun to be used effectively in Qur’anic studies. Angelika Neuwirth, a German-born orientalist, has conducted an intertextual reading by placing the Quran within the epistemic fabric of Late Antiquity with her Corpus Coranicum project. This method, which is also used in the works of American orientalists such as Stephen Shoemaker, Daniel Beck, Sean Anthony, Gabriel Said Reynolds and David Powers, seems likely to dominate the field in the coming years.

A Unique Assemblage of Roman Handmade/Slow Wheel-Made Pottery at Tamuda (Tetouan, Morocco): Provenance, Production Technology, and Archaeological Implications

Abstract A study of a 2nd century AD assemblage of handmade/slow wheel-made cooking wares, found at the Roman settlement of Tamuda (Tetouan, Morocco) is presented. Such ceramics are rare in Early-Middle Roman Imperial contexts of the western Mediterranean. A combined typological and archaeometric approach – including petrographic, mineralogical, and chemical analyses – was carried out to study this assemblage, aiming to examine the hypothesis of a local or regional provenance and to shed light on its production technology. The results indicate the existence of a diversity of products, including a fabric that was likely locally manufactured, as well as other imported fabrics that point to micro-regional distribution or trade of some of these wares. This research is a significant contribution towards a better understanding of the handmade/slow wheel-made pottery that was produced and consumed in the northern Moroccan Rif in the Roman period.

Roman bronze amphoras from the Sarmatian burials of Eastern Europe

In the Sarmatian burials six intact or fragmented bronze amphoras and one separate handle of Tassinari types A3212 and A3220 were found. The peculiarities of shape, details and sizes discussed. The clear majority of large vessels (mainly from 40 to 44 cm high) in Thrace and Asian Sarmatia contrasts with the finds from Pompeii or Western and Central Europe. A significant number of amphoras from Sarmatia originate from the so-called ‘princely’ burials in the Lower Don region of the second half of the 1st – early 2nd century AD. There is a correlation of the finds with the remains of the funeral feasts associated with central female burials in the mounds. The penetration of amphoras to the nomads gives reason to assume that such vessels were in some demand among them and it was not by chance that large amphoras were brought to Thrace and Sarmatia. If this is so (and I cannot find another explanation), then such large vessels could have been specially made with a view to the Thracian and Sarmatian aristocracy. Of course, this was not the only way of penetration of large bronze amphoras to the Sarmatians. There are grounds to suggest that the large bronze amphoras could be acquired by the Sarmatians also during the Bosporan–Roman war in 45–49 AD.

The First Cranial Trepanation Find in a Meotian Burial Ground (Starokorsunskiy Settlement No. 2, Krasnodar Region)

A young woman’s skeleton dating back to the Meotian archaeological culture was studied during the investigation of the paleoanthropological series of the burial ground of the Starokorsunsky settlement No. 2. The burial ground is located in the Krasnodar Territory and is dated to the 4th century BC – 2nd century AD, while the burial under discussion dates back to the 2nd century BC – 2nd century AD. A trepanation hole with signs of healing was found on the skull of a young female of 17–25 years of age. In order to describe the pathological changes recorded on the cranial vault recommendations applied in modern paleoanthropology were used. Differential diagnosis was performed using descriptive macroscopic and X-ray diagnostic methods. It was possible to establish that the trepanation hole was made at least several years before the death of the individual. We suggested that the reason for the operation could be early synostosis of the skull sutures, and this manipulation was designed to reduce intracranial pressure and headaches caused by it. The article discusses the likely origins of medical skills for surgical manipulation. It is concluded that so far the data obtained do not allow us to speak unequivocally about the acquisition of medical knowledge by Meots from residents of the Asian Bosporus or from the Sarmatian environment.

What’s behind Margin Status in Oral Cancer?

In the 2nd century AD, Galen argued that the failure to remove any single ‘root’ of a malignant tumor could result in a local relapse. After nearly 2 millennia, this problem appears to be even more challenging due to our increased understanding of the complexity of tumor formation and spread. Pathological analysis of tumor margins under a microscope remains the primary and only accepted method for confirming the complete tumor removal. However, this method is not an all-or-nothing test, and it can be compromised by various intrinsic and extrinsic limitations. Among the intrinsic limitations of pathological analysis we recall the pathologist handling, tissue shrinkage, the detection of minimal residual disease and the persistence of a precancerous field. Extrinsic limitations relate to surgical tools and their thermal damage, the different kinds of surgical resections and frozen sections collection. Surgeons, as well as oncologists and radiotherapists, should be well aware of and deeply understand these limitations to avoid misinterpretation of margin status, which can have serious consequences. Meanwhile, new technologies such as Narrow band imaging have shown promising results in assisting with the achievement of clear superficial resection margins. More recently, emerging techniques like Raman spectroscopy and near-infrared fluorescence have shown potential as real-time guides for surgical resection.The aim of this narrative review is to provide valuable insights into the complex process of margin analysis and underscore the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration between pathologists, surgeons, oncologists, and radiotherapists to optimize patient outcomes in oral cancer surgery.

Sedurot in orientalischen Bibelhandschriften

Abstract The text of the Hebrew Bible is divided into sections, which are marked by Petuhot and Setumot. The Mishna prescribed their correct identification to the scribes (2nd century AD). Some medieval manuscripts also exhibit a third structural sign, the Sedura. Its form is described in detail in the Ashkenazi “Machsor Vitry,” but its function is not defined. This note proves that, contrary to popular belief, the sedura also occurs in oriental manuscripts, and I propose that it functions as a kind of “placeholder” in cases of uncertain transmission of the Petuhot or Setumot because its form allows the reciter to read it as Petuha or Setuma or to ignore it. Therefore I call for the correct identification of the Sedura in the Hebrew editions of the Bible which reproduce the text of the Codex Leningradensis.

익산지역 마한문화의 성립과 변천

It is generally believed that Mahan was founded before the 2nd century BC. According to historical records, Mahan began with King Jun's migration and settlement in the Iksan area. Since there are not many cases that have been investigated in relation to the residential areas with living remains, few facts of them are known accurately. The tombs constructed include wooden coffin tombs with stone mound, pit tombs, and jar coffin tombs. Out of them, however, wooden coffin tombs with stone mound and pit tombs from an early period are sporadically identified, and the mainly excavated relics are bronze ware. Following the southward transfer of King Jun, a large group of tombs were constructed as in Madong, and the relics excavated are featuring both bronze and iron ware. In light of this, it can be said that the Mahan society in the Iksan region during the establishment period developed by actively accepting advanced civilization. Around the 1st century, the Mahan society in the Iksan region faced a period of stagnation, and villages began to be built in full swing after the 2nd century AD, reaching a peak in the 3rd to 4th centuries AD. Large-scale settlements appeared in places like Sadeok and Jangshin and small- and medium-sized villages were formed and organically connected to each other around the large-scale settlements in the center. As for tombs, mounded tombs with an encircling ditch began to be built in earnest, and it can be seen as the developing period of Mahan culture.. The Mahan culture in the Iksan area sustained even after Baekje territorialization. Such dwellings as four-pillar and non-four-pillar types of Mahan culture continued and, in some dwellings, fire pits made of plate stone and utensils which can be seen as Baekje elements appear and Baekje pottery is found in the sites of dwellings. Furthermore, dwelling sites with pillars used for walls related to the center of Baekje made an entrance. Tombs of the Mahan tradition also continued to be built even after Baekje territorialization. However, the stone chamber or stone-lined tomb related to the center of Baekje were employed for burial body and the grave goods changed to Baekje pottery, while Baekje pottery was excavated within the burial mound. In the areas of Ipjeom-ri and Ungpo-ri, the lower reaches of the Geumgang River, stone- built tombs of Baekje style were built in the mid-5th century, an evidence confirming that Baekje first took control of the lower Geumgang River, an important waterway transportation route and gateway. After the Gwangam-ri area in the middle of the Mangyeong River basin first became Baekje territory, Baekje central culture seemed to have entered the surrounding areas, too.

The Syntax of the Genitive Case in Longus’ Novel Daphnis and Chloe

This study aims to explore the syntactic functions and characteristics of the genitive case in the ancient Greek novel “Daphnis and Chloe” by Longus, a text from the 2nd century AD, which exemplifies the “second sophistic” period of rhetorical development. The primary source for this research is the text of “Daphnis and Chloe”, which has been thoroughly analysed to ascertain the usage of the genitive case in various syntactic roles. The research employs descriptive and structural methods of linguistic analysis. The descriptive method identifies and explains instances of the genitive case within the text, while the structural method examines the relationships between these instances and other linguistic elements. The genitive case in the novel is found to perform multiple syntactic functions, including controlling verbs, nouns, adjectives, and expressing various semantic nuances. Detailed examples are provided to illustrate these functions and their impact on the text’s meaning. The findings offer a foundation for further studies of the genitive case in ancient Greek texts, providing significant insights for researchers and linguists interested in ancient Greek grammar and its syntactic constructions. The study enhances understanding of ancient rhetorical techniques and their application in literary texts during the “second sophistic” period.

Номенклатура металлов и сплавов из сарматских могильников Нижнего Поволжья II в. до н.э. – первой половины II в. н.э. по данным РФА

The work presents the results of an analysis of the chemical composition of 82 objects from non-ferrous and precious metals dating from the 4th century BC – the first half of the 2nd century AD and originating from the excavation of funeral monuments located in the Lower Volga region. Basically, the analysis of the chemical composition of non-ferrous metal was carried out for objects characteristic of the ordinary population of the region: mirrors, jewelry, clothing or household items, and details of horse harnesses; importantly, sampling was random. The data obtained by the XRF method are very interesting and demonstrate a change in the nomenclature of leading alloys. So, for the period of the 2nd century BC – the border of eras, there is a significant number of objects from tin as well as from tin-lead bronze, with a slight presence of products from a multicomponent alloy, an alloy with arsenic. For the period of the 1st – the first half of the 2nd century AD, there is a significant change in the leading types of alloys: zinc-containing alloys such as two- and three-component brass dominate the sample; also significantly increased the share of triple bronze, highly alloyed with lead; there are also products made of copper and tin bronze. Silver products made of silver from different samples are present in all stages. Analysis of alloying components and impurities in the identified alloys made it possible to distinguish in the sample of the 2nd century BC –the border of eras, the influence of the North Caucasian center of non-ferrous metalworking; recorded changes in the nomenclature of alloys of the 1st – the first half of the 2nd century AD arose, most likely, under the influence of the North Black Sea center of non-ferrous metalworking. The presence of high-zinc brass objects in the sample during the period of the 1st – the first half of the 2nd century AD also does not exclude the receipt of this type of brass from the production center located in Central Asia, which is characterized by an extremely high zinc content in the alloy.

Pottery and Social Practice: Between Home and Abroad

This article aims to explore the uses of material culture and their relevance to identity formation. The premise is applied specifically to the moving auxilia, in order to observe the effects of movement and transfers on the selection and consumption of material culture within the military environment. It is common knowledge that pottery supply and use within the Roman military were to an extent governed by specific state-controlled supply routes and contracts, meaning that the same pottery styles could have been observed at different forts from different regions. Nonetheless, the cultural side of demand should not be overlooked as it may have tailored supply differently to various regions depending on the preferences in the area. Similarly, auxiliary units transferred from home may have preserved some of their familiar pottery styles and reproduce them upon arrival to the new territory. This article will explore the ways pottery was employed at locations associated with Batavian auxilia in order to capture their image construction between home and abroad. Once removed from their core territory and placed in a new environment with new norms in terms of material culture and even dressing and addressing one another, how did their consumption adapt to the area and to which extent did it keep a unique character? The main case-study explored in this paper is Războieni in order to assess the pottery consumption patterns of Batavian auxilia abroad in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.

Lost in translation

Abstract In 1959, Toufic Fahd – a professor of Arabic language, literature, and civilization – made a fortuitous discovery. During a visit to the University of Istanbul, while perusing the University’s library, Fahd stumbled upon an Arabic translation of a Greek work, namely the famous dream interpretation book of Artemidorus, known as the Oneirocritica. The original Greek text is fascinating as it stands as the sole surviving classical work on dream interpretation. The discovery of its later Arabic translation, however, is captivating in its own right. The context of this translation alone is of particular interest to any Islamic historian, having been initially commissioned during the height of the ʿAbbāsid Translation Movement and undertaken by the renowned translator, Ḥunayn Ibn ʾIsḥāq. The intention of the present paper is to compare these texts, highlighting intentional changes made to the content of the Greek work, specifically in instances related to mythology, sexuality, and cultural practices. These changes are noteworthy as they have rendered the Arabic translation as more of a work of interpretation itself, modifying the 2nd century AD Greek text to reflect the realities of its new religious and geographic setting in 9th century Baghdad.

SOME CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THE BEGINNINGS OF ROMAN LIFE AT ROMULA

The beginnings of Roman life in Romula are difficult to identify. The traces of habitation are ephemeral, probably, many of them were destroyed by the refurbishing of the following periods. Since the first war between Dacians and Romans, in 101-102, a marching camp was built in Reşca (Dobrosloveni commune, Olt County). In terms of archaeological structures, the elements of the fortification in the central area, the two fossae, the berm and the two enclosure walls stand out. To this is added a building in the central-northern area of the Central Fortification, which had a wooden plank floor. In the Northern Sector, a Roman cultural layer appeared, with building materials (spikes) and other objects that can be dated with coins issued in the early 2nd century AD.

Rock Sanctuaries of Apollo in Southern Pisidia: Traditional and “Author’s”

Most rock sanctuaries founded in the mountains of Taurus in the 1st – 3rd century AD had a votive character. These sanctuaries belonged to different deities. In southern Pisidia, three traditional rock sanctuaries of Apollo are known: in Perminus, near the city of Pednelissos, and near the ancient city, whose ruins are located near Kocaaliler. The iconography of Apollo in these sanctuaries differs from the image of a naked god familiar to the Greeks. On the votive stelae from Perminus, Apollo is represented as a rider-god, and in two other sanctuaries the image of the god reproduces the basic principles of the idea of the local god of the Pamphylian city of Side, the so-called Apollo Sidetes. But in the 2nd half of the 2nd century AD, a resident of the city of Adada named Leontianos founded near the road in Yazılı kanyon his “author’s” sanctuary. Based on the traditional votive principle, Leontianos carved on the rock his own verses containing hortations in Stoic philosophy and presented his walking stick as a gift to Apollo. This walking stick symbolized the rejection of reliance on everything material and the achievement of inner freedom, which was taught by Epictetus. The author provides a comparative description of these sanctuaries and points out how the idea of erecting an “author’s” sanctuary arose from the tradition of founding votive sanctuaries and how this new sanctuary differed from the traditional ones.

History of Trigeminal Neuralgia:Before the Era of Modern Treatment

Descriptions of what appears to be trigeminal neuralgia(TN)appear in medical literature from around the 2nd century AD. Aretaeus of Cappadocia is believed to be the first person in history to have specifically described TN. TN or TN-like facial pain was once known as Fothergill's disease, following a detailed description of the symptoms by Fothergill in the 18th century. For a long time, no effective oral therapy for TN was available, and only surgical treatments were used, such as severing of the trigeminal nerve or resection of the Gasserian ganglion. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Hartley, Krauss, Cushing, Spiller and Frazier developed techniques for approaching the Gasserian ganglion through the middle cranial fossa, and Dandy pioneered trigeminal nerve transection through the posterior fossa. Also at this time, Harris introduced nerve block using alcohol. Later, various oral medications, such as phenytoin(1942)and carbamazepine(1962), were introduced and these became effective treatments. Modern surgical treatment began in the mid-20th century, when Taarnhøj, Gardner and Jannetta introduced nerve decompression.

Polemika medzi cisárom Hadriánom a filozofom Epiktétom

The work, Dialogue between the Emperor Hadrian and Epictetus the Philosopher, is a fictional dialogue consisting of seventy-three questions and answers, probably written in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. It features the Roman emperor Hadrian as the questioning pupil and the Stoic philosopher Epictetus as the responding teacher. Most of the questions can be divided into two main categories. The smaller part is written in the form of riddles. The others are definitions. The questions deal with a variety of topics: things to do with death (e.g. gravedigger, funeral pyre), definitions of various metals (gold, silver, iron), useful things (e.g. letter, picture, sword), relationships and emotional terms (e.g. friendship, hope, love), celestial objects (sun, moon, sky, stars, earth), and realities related to seafaring (sea, ship, sailor), nightlife (sleep, night, pillow) or religion (god, sacrifice). This work was particularly influential in the development of medieval dialogue. The most famous adaptation is the Enfant Sage, which originated in the 13th century somewhere in the region of Provence.

ИКОНОГРАФИЯ ЩИТОВ РИМСКИХ ЛЕГИОНЕРОВ ПОСЛЕДНЕЙ ТРЕТИ II В.: НА МАТЕРИАЛЕ РЕЛЬЕФОВ КОЛОННЫ МАРКА АВРЕЛИЯ

The article considers the reliefs with the Roman legionnaires’ images on the Column of Marcus Aurelius as a source on the Roman weaponry and military tactics of the last third of the 2nd century AD. Traditionally in historiography, those images are not considered sufficiently representative due to the large number of the borrowings from other monuments of the Roman triumphal art. By analyzing the images of various legionary shields on the Marcus Aurelius Column and comparing them with other monuments of the Roman art of the last third of the 2nd – early 3d centuries AD, there were similarities found between them in representing the elements of the Roman military equipment. The Column images prove the use by the legionnaires of at least four types of shields with various shapes. It is also assumed that Roman soldiers could have used the shields of different shapes and types even within the same formation or the formation without any reference to a particular line of formation construction. In general, the reliefs of the column make it possible to challenge the conventional wisdom of the uniform armament of the Roman legions during the period of the Principate. Thus, the reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius can be considered a valuable source on the military affairs of the early Empire era.

«КАКИЕ МНЕНИЯ О ДЕМОНАХ У ЭЛЛИНОВ» МИХАИЛА ПСЕЛЛА (ТЕКСТ, ПЕРЕВОД И КОММЕНТАРИИ)

The publication presents a commented Russian translation of a short compilation entitled Τίνα περὶ δαιμόνων δοξάζουσιν Ἕλληνες (“What are the Hellenes’ Opinions of Demons”, Latin Graecorum opiniones de daemonibus) attributed to Michael Psellus (1018 – ca. 1078). The text is a compact overview of religious and adjacent practices of the “Hellenes”, meaning the pagan Greeks, from the Neoplatonic perspective, which goes back, eventually, to the Chaldaic Oracles, the “Bible of Neoplatonists” as Franz Cumont has named that fragmentarily extant collection of the 2nd century AD. Indubitably Michael Psellus has been strongly influenced by the Oracles, as well as by the lost commentary on this work by Proclus. Nevertheless, the attribution to Michael Psellus of the Opinions, as well as of the dialogue Timotheus, or On demons (Τιμόθεος ἢ περὶ δαιμόνων), another, somewhat more extensive essay on the same topics (demonology, sacrifices, mysteries, sorcery, magic, divination), seems to be definitively unconvincing, judging by purely formal (lingual) criteria. It would be much more plausible to attribute these writings to some students or followers of this prominent representative of Byzantine proto-Humanism, conveniently designating these anonymous authors as “Pseudo-Psellus”. The text of the Opinions allows to promptly identify many cross-references not only to Proclus, but also to other Neoplatonists (Porphyry, Iamblichus, Synesius), and the section on the mysteries almost literally borrows (though not without blatant distortions) from Clement of Alexandria’s Protrepticus. The Russian translation is based on Paul Gautier’s edition (1988), which is itself based on the oldest manuscript, Vaticanus gr. 1411 (fin. s. xiv), containing the text of the compilation (ff. 33r–34v).