2D Screen Research Articles

Eye movements to absent objects during mental imagery and visual memory in immersive virtual reality

The role of eye movements in mental imagery and visual memory is typically investigated by presenting stimuli or scenes on a two-dimensional (2D) computer screen. When questioned about objects that had previously been presented on-screen, people gaze back to the location of the stimuli, even though those regions are blank during retrieval. It remains unclear whether this behavior is limited to a highly controlled experimental setting using 2D screens or whether it also occurs in a more naturalistic setting. The present study aims to overcome this shortcoming. Three-dimensional (3D) objects were presented along a circular path in an immersive virtual room. During retrieval, participants were given two tasks: to visualize the objects, which they had encoded before, and to evaluate a statement about visual details of the object. We observed longer fixation duration in the area, on which the object was previously displayed, when compared to other possible target locations. However, in 89% of the time, participants fixated none of the predefined areas. On the one hand, this shows that looking at nothing may be overestimated in 2D screen-based paradigm, on the other hand, the looking at nothing effect was still present in the 3D immersive virtual reality setting, and thus it extends external validity of previous findings. Eye movements during retrieval reinstate spatial information of previously inspected stimuli.

The short-term effects of head-mounted virtual-reality on neuropathic pain intensity in people with spinal cord injury pain: a randomised cross-over pilot study.

Within-subject, randomised cross-over trial. To determine whether a commercially available 3D head-mounted (HMD) virtual reality (VR) device results in significant reductions in neuropathic pain compared to using a 2D screen device in people with spinal cord injury (SCI). Greenwich Hospital, Sydney, Australia. Sixteen men with established SCI and chronic neuropathic pain participated in a single-session randomised cross-over trial. We compared the effects of 3D HMD VR and a 2D screen application on SCI neuropathic pain intensity and levels of perceived presence. Participants reported significantly lower pain intensity after 3D HMD VR compared to 2D screen application (1.9 ± SD 1.8 versus 3.4 ± SD 1.6, mean 95% CI: 1.5, P < 0.0001). Participants reported significantly higher perceived levels of presence with the 3D HMD VR compared to 2D screen of (49.6 ± SD 8.9 versus 32.8 ± SD 11.1, mean 95% CI: 16.6, P < 0.0001). Increased perceived presence was associated with significantly lower pain intensity regardless of randomised sequencing of the two conditions (mean 95% CI: 0.06, P = 0.005). Effect size for pain reduction using 3D HMD VR was 0.80. We suggest that 3D HMD VR may provide neuropathic pain relief for people with SCI. Given the lack of cybersickness and ease of access, we propose that immersive VR could be a helpful adjunct to current pharmacotherapy. Further research is required to show that VR can be effective for more long-term reductions in SCI pain.

Harnessing Augmented Reality and CT to Teach First-Year Medical Students Head and Neck Anatomy

Three-dimensional (3D) visualization has been shown to benefit new generations of medical students and physicians-in-training in a variety of contexts. However, there is limited research directly comparing student performance after using 3D tools to those using two-dimensional (2D) screens. A CT was performed on a donated cadaver and a 3D CT hologram was created. A total of 30 first-year medical students were randomly assigned into two groups to review head and neck anatomy in a teaching session that incorporated CT. The first group used an augmented reality headset, while the second group used a laptop screen. The students were administered a five-question anatomy test before and after the session. Two-tailed t-tests were used for statistical comparison of pretest and posttest performance within and between groups. A feedback survey was distributed for qualitative data. Pretest vs. posttest comparison of average percentage of questions answered correctly demonstrated both groups showing significant in-group improvement (p < 0.05), from 59% to 95% in the augmented reality group, and from 57% to 80% in the screen group. Between-group analysis indicated that posttest performance was significantly better in the augmented reality group (p = 0.022, effect size = 0.73). Immersive 3D visualization has the potential to improve short-term anatomic recall in the head and neck compared to traditional 2D screen-based review, as well as engage millennial learners to learn better in anatomy laboratory. Our findings may reflect additional benefit gained from the stereoscopic depth cues present in augmented reality-based visualization.

The Shared View Paradigm in Asymmetric Virtual Reality Setups

Abstract Asymmetric Virtual Reality (VR) applications are a substantial subclass of multi-user VR that offers not all participants the same interaction possibilities with the virtual scene. While one user might be immersed using a VR head-mounted display (HMD), another user might experience the VR through a common desktop PC. In an educational scenario, for example, learners can use immersive VR technology to inform themselves at different exhibits within a virtual scene. Educators can use a desktop PC setup for following and guiding learners through virtual exhibits and still being able to pay attention to safety aspects in the real world (e. g., avoid learners bumping against a wall). In such scenarios, educators must ensure that learners have explored the entire scene and have been informed about all virtual exhibits in it. According visualization techniques can support educators and facilitate conducting such VR-enhanced lessons. One common technique is to render the view of the learners on the 2D screen available to the educators. We refer to this solution as the shared view paradigm. However, this straightforward visualization involves challenges. For example, educators have no control over the scene and the collaboration of the learning scenario can be tedious. In this paper, we differentiate between two classes of visualizations that can help educators in asymmetric VR setups. First, we investigate five techniques that visualize the view direction or field of view of users (view visualizations) within virtual environments. Second, we propose three techniques that can support educators to understand what parts of the scene learners already have explored (exploration visualization). In a user study, we show that our participants preferred a volume-based rendering and a view-in-view overlay solution for view visualizations. Furthermore, we show that our participants tended to use combinations of different view visualizations.

End-Users’ Augmented Reality Utilization for Architectural Design Review

To effectively use augmented reality (AR) technology for end-user involved design collaboration, it is necessary to ensure the effectiveness of the AR system from the end-user’s perspective. However, most efforts have mainly focused on technological development, and as such, limited attention has been paid to the end-user’s application of the AR system. Therefore, this study investigates how the AR system affects architectural design review based on the user’s perspectives. Three different display systems presenting a 3D model including a 2D screen, VR, and AR were tested, and a total of 76 participants evaluated visual presentation quality, perceived acceptability, and user experience according to their usage of the visualization platform types during the design review activities. Compared to other systems, the results indicated that the AR system could be more effective in reviewing the visual elements of a building. Furthermore, AR showed the highest ratings for acceptance level and user experience. The innovation provided by AR created a positive user experience, despite its remaining challenges to be resolved in terms of functionality. Since it is expected that the use of AR can be promoted by overcoming certain technological limitations, this study contributes to guiding AR system applications for end-users involved in the design review process.

Enhanced Attention Using Head-mounted Virtual Reality.

Some evidence suggests that experiencing a given scenario using virtual reality (VR) may engage greater attentional resources than experiencing the same scenario on a 2D computer monitor. However, the underlying neural processes associated with these VR-related effects, especially those pertaining to current consumer-friendly head-mounted displays of virtual reality (HMD-VR), remain unclear. Here, two experiments were conducted to compare task performance and EEG-based neural metrics captured during a perceptual discrimination task presented on two different viewing platforms. Forty participants (20-25 years old) completed this task using both an HMD-VR and traditional computer monitor in a within-group, randomized design. Although Experiment I (n = 20) was solely behavioral in design, Experiment II (n = 20) utilized combined EEG recordings to interrogate the neural correlates underlying potential performance differences across platforms. These experiments revealed that (1) there was no significant difference in the amount of arousal measured between platforms and (2) selective attention abilities in HMD-VR environment were enhanced from both a behavioral and neural perspective. These findings suggest that the allocation of attentional resources in HMD-VR may be superior to approaches more typically used to assess these abilities (e.g., desktop/laptop/tablet computers with 2D screens).

“Empathy machine”: how virtual reality affects human rights attitudes

PurposeThis study aims to investigate how media content consumed through immersive technology may evoke changes in human rights attitudes. It has been proposed that our inability to empathize with others could be overcome by stepping into another's shoes. “Immersive journalism” has been postulated as being able to place us into the shoes of those whose feelings and experiences are distant to us. While virtual reality (VR) and 360-degree news videos have become widely available, it remains unclear how the consumption of content through immersive journalism affects users' attitudes.Design/methodology/approachUtilizing a between-subject laboratory-controlled experiment (N = 87) this study examined participant scores on the Human Rights Questionnaire before and after consuming 360-degree video immersive journalism content via VR (n = 31), 2D (n = 29), and Article (n = 27) formats. Collected data were analysed using statistical inference.FindingsResults indicate that immersive journalism can elicit a positive attitudinal change in users, unlike an Article, with mobile VR having a more prominent effect than a 2D screen. Furthermore, this change is more strongly affected by users' higher Involvement in the content.Originality/valueThese findings are relevant for grasping the distinct effects novel and recently popularized technologies and media have on attitudinal change, as well as inform the current debate on the value of VR as “empathy machines”.

VR-TECHNOLOGY AS A MODERN ARCHITECTURE TOOL

Visualization tools like CAD help architects to develop their projects, but they’re not always successful in doing that. For one, the tools are too complex and the digital drawings and models produced are still 2D screen bounded, which makes it difficult – for collaborators and clients as well as the architects – to get a real, accurate sense of how design will look like, function, and take up space in the reality. According to the current way how CAD works for both visualization and prototyping – it has tremendous limitations. Every architect using CAD face problem of limitations resulting in misunderstanding between person who look at the visualization and own architects spatial view. 3D simulation on the 2D screen causes difficulties in experiencing scale, contextual elements and depth. However it is not proved that CAD representation results in wrong perception, since each individual human spatial perception has ability to intuitively compensate scale and depth issues individually that may differ from architects one. Thus, VR has the possibility to avoid pitfalls and provide natural and perception-friendly visualization. The epoch of CAD is ending – Virtual reality (VR) will be next digital visualization standard [1; 2]. This article explore the way and experience how architects will use the new methods of visualization using modern VR approach and expanding from this – investigation of the VR relationship and possibility to integrate into the architectural workflow. Article evaluates how differently CAD and VR affection results in the final space design and proves the CADs insufficiency in spatial visualization.

Learning Dynamic Textures for Neural Rendering of Human Actors

Synthesizing realistic videos of humans using neural networks has been a popular alternative to the conventional graphics-based rendering pipeline due to its high efficiency. Existing works typically formulate this as an image-to-image translation problem in 2D screen space, which leads to artifacts such as over-smoothing, missing body parts, and temporal instability of fine-scale detail, such as pose-dependent wrinkles in the clothing. In this article, we propose a novel human video synthesis method that approaches these limiting factors by explicitly disentangling the learning of time-coherent fine-scale details from the embedding of the human in 2D screen space. More specifically, our method relies on the combination of two convolutional neural networks (CNNs). Given the pose information, the first CNN predicts a dynamic texture map that contains time-coherent high-frequency details, and the second CNN conditions the generation of the final video on the temporally coherent output of the first CNN. We demonstrate several applications of our approach, such as human reenactment and novel view synthesis from monocular video, where we show significant improvement over the state of the art both qualitatively and quantitatively.

The future of ‘video’ in video-based qualitative research is not ‘dumb’ flat pixels! Exploring volumetric performance capture and immersive performative replay

Qualitative research that focuses on social interaction and talk has been increasingly based, for good reason, on collections of audiovisual recordings in which 2D flat-screen video and mono/stereo audio are the dominant recording media. This article argues that the future of ‘video’ in video-based qualitative studies will move away from ‘dumb’ flat pixels in a 2D screen. Instead, volumetric performance capture and immersive performative replay rely on a procedural camera/spectator-independent representation of a dynamic real or virtual volumetric space over time. It affords analytical practices of re-enactment – shadowing or redoing modes of seeing/listening as an active spectation for ‘another next first time’ – which play on the tense relationships between live performance, observability, spectatorship and documentation. Three examples illustrate how naturally occurring social interaction and settings can be captured volumetrically and re-enacted immersively in virtual reality (VR) and what this means for data integrity, evidential adequacy and qualitative analysis.

Concern of Photosensitive Seizures Evoked by 3D Video Displays or Virtual Reality Headsets in Children: Current Perspective.

This review assesses the risk of a photic-induced seizure in a child during viewing of 3D (binocular 3 dimensional, stereoscopic) movies or games, either on standard video displays or when wearing a virtual reality (VR) headset. Studies published by pediatric epilepsy experts emphasize the low risk of 3D viewing even for children with known photosensitive epilepsy (PSE). The low incidence of PSE is noteworthy because the number of hours devoted to 2D or 3D screen viewing and/or VR headset use by children worldwide has increased markedly over the last decade. The medical literature does not support the notion that VR headset use poses a risk for PSE.

P801 A virtual reality tool for measurement of 3D echocardiographic images

Abstract Funding Acknowledgements Work supported by the NIHR i4i funded 3D Heart project [II-LA-0716-20001] Background/Introduction Cardiac measurements are clinically important and are invariably required in any clinical imaging software. The advent of Virtual Reality (VR) imaging systems is introducing intuitive and natural ways of visualising and interrogating echo images in a 3D environment. The 3D nature of the VR experience requires purpose-designed measurement tools, which may benefit from better depth perception and easier localisation of 3D landmarks. Purpose Comparison of the accuracy of our VR 3D linear measurement system to commercial clinical imaging software, using both multi-plane reformatting (MPR) and volume rendered views. Method Each virtual reality measurement was made by selecting two points in 3D, directly in the volume rendering. The participants could edit the measurements until satisfied with their accuracy. 5 expert clinicians carried out 26 measurements each - 6 measurements on a calibration phantom, and 5 anatomically meaningful measurements (for example: aortic valve, left atrium, left ventricle) on 4 datasets. The same measurements were made by all participants using our VR system (volume rendering), Philips" QLAB (MPR) and Tomtec (volume rendering). The frame number and view (for example: long axis) were consistent for each measurement across the 3 packages used. Results Preliminary results are shown in the figure below. MPR measurements made on Philips’ QLAB are used as a reference, as this is the most commonly used software for this purpose at our institution. We compare measurements made in Tomtec and VR, both using volume rendering, using Bland-Altman plots. Each measurement data point is the mean of all participants measurements for each dataset/measurement combination. The mean of the measurement differences for the VR system is closer to zero, compared to Tomtec. However, the variation of these differences is larger for the VR system than for Tomtec. Conclusion Our preliminary results suggest that the accuracy of line measurements made using volume rendering within a VR system is comparable to measurements made using approved software packages for volume rendering displayed on a 2D screen. This shows promise for more complex interrogation methods. Abstract P801 Figure. Comparison of Tomtec and VR with QLAB

3D Printed Patient Specific Models from Medical Imaging - A General Workflow

Abstract Scanning Technologies such as the Computer Topography (CT) or Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) gather three-dimensional data (3D) that can be viewed on 2D Screens. However, actual 3D models allow a better interaction with real objects. Developments in image partition algorithms and improved accessibility of three-dimensional (3D) printers has resulted in manufacturing cost effective patient-specific models without proficient knowledge. In this paper, a general workflow is executed to transform the medical image such as Computer Tomography (CT) to 3D printable physical model. The process is split into four stages: image acquisition, image partition, mesh adjustment and 3D printing. The efficacy of this streamlined workflow has been demonstrated by producing heart, kidneys, liver and lungs using Stratasys Object260 Connex 3D printer. This paper concludes with a general method to convert a medical image to 3D printable solid model and it works for the extensive array of organs and anatomical regions of interest. Also provided an outline of open-source software’s which can be used for medical image partition by end users who are not specialized in image processing.

Modelling and Visualizing Holographic 3D Geographical Scenes with Timely Data Based on the HoloLens

Commonly, a three-dimensional (3D) geographic information system (GIS) is based on a two-dimensional (2D) visualization platform, hindering the understanding and expression of the real world in 3D space that further limits user cognition and understanding of 3D geographic information. Mixed reality (MR) adopts 3D display technology, which enables users to recognize and understand a computer-generated world from the perspective of 3D glasses and solves the problem that users are restricted to the perspective of a 2D screen, with a broad application foreground. However, there is a gap, especially dynamically, in modelling and visualizing a holographic 3D geographical Scene with GIS data/information under the development mechanism of a mixed reality system (e.g., the Microsoft HoloLens). This paper attempts to propose a design architecture (HoloDym3DGeoSce) to model and visualize holographic 3D geographical scenes with timely data based on mixed reality technology and the Microsoft HoloLens. The HoloDym3DGeoSce includes two modules, 3D geographic scene modelling with timely data and HoloDym3DGeoSce interactive design. 3D geographic scene modelling with timely data dynamically creates 3D geographic scenes based on Web services, providing materials and content for the HoloDym3DGeoSce system. The HoloDym3DGeoSce interaction module includes two methods: Human–computer physical interaction and human–computer virtual–real interaction. The human–computer physical interaction method provides an interface for users to interact with virtual geographic scenes. The human–computer virtual–real interaction method maps virtual geographic scenes to physical space to achieve virtual and real fusion. According to the proposed architecture design scheme, OpenStreetMap data and the BingMap Server are used as experimental data to realize the application of mixed reality technology to the modelling, rendering, and interacting of 3D geographic scenes, providing users with a stronger and more realistic 3D geographic information experience, and more natural human–computer GIS interactions. The experimental results show that the feasibility and practicability of the scheme have good prospects for further development.

3D digital outcrop model reconstruction of the Kimberley outcrop (Gale crater, Mars) and its integration into Virtual Reality for simulated geological analysis

Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry has recently become a cheap and efficient method to reconstruct accurate and highly-resolved 3D Digital Outcrop Model (DOM) from a single set of images. This enables the 3D visualization of hardly accessible and/or remote geological scenes, which is of strong interest for planetary bodies. This paper focuses on the reconstruction of the DOM of the Kimberley outcrop (Gale crater, Mars) using the Agisoft PhotoScan Professional software. This software is used to compute an accurate, scaled and georeferenced 3D mesh of this outcrop from set of multi-scale images taken by the Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity. This model was merged with a 3D model computed from orbital images from the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment camera (HiRISE) to provide the context. One of the challenges is to integrate data coming from different cameras (with varying optical parameters) not specifically designed for 3D rendering, and with limited points of views. While the obtained DOM allows to observe and characterize geological features of Kimberley’s sedimentary series, classic viewing methods through a 2D screen limits the understanding of the real 3D geometry and scale of the outcrop, as there is no feature such as trees or roads on Mars to provide size references to the user. To overcome this issue and facilitate the interpretation of the DOM, the latter is integrated into a Virtual Reality (VR) environment that enables one or several users working in a collaborative mode to experience a real scale, reliable and realistic depiction of the actual geometries of the geological features reconstructed on the mesh. Precise and accurate description, contextualization of the samplings and mapping of the Kimberley outcrop can therefore be achieved in VR allowing for more precise characterization and interpretations, the same way one would do on a real geological field trip.

Physicalizing cardiac blood flow data via 3D printing

Blood flow data from cardiac 4D Flow MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) holds much potential for research and diagnosis of flow-related diseases. However, understanding this data is quite challenging – after all, it is a volumetric vector field that changes over time. One helpful way to explore the data is by flow visualization, but most traditional flow visualizations are designed for 2D screens and thus suffer from limited depth perception and restricted screen space. We propose a novel slice-based physical model as a complementary method for visualizing the flow data. The design of this model respects the conventional method of viewing medical imagery (i.e., in cross sections) but has the added advantages of engaging one’s sense of touch, not suffering from screen space restrictions, and being easily fabricated by affordable fused deposition modelling (FDM) printers. We apply the slice-based technique to different representations of blood flow data and demonstrate that the technique is capable of transforming volumetric flow data into a tangible, easily fabricable model.

Eye movement measures for predicting eye gaze accuracy and symptoms in 2D and 3D displays

The current study applied Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to analyze the interrelationship among index of difficulty (ID), environment, saccade duration (SD), revisited fixation duration (RFD), number of fixation (NF), pupil size (PS), eye gaze accuracy (AC), and symptoms simultaneously. SD, RFD, NF, PS, and AC were measured by utilizing the Tobii eye tracker system. Twelve participants were recruited to perform multi-directional tapping task using within-subject design with two different environments (2D screen display and 3D stereoscopic display) and six different levels of ID. SEM showed that ID had significant direct effects on SD and RFD while environment was found had significant direct effects on SD, RFD, PS, AC, and symptoms. Among selected eye movement measures, NF was found to be the best predictor of AC and PS was found to be the best predictor of symptoms. In addition, RFD was also found to be a good predictor of symptoms. Our results found that higher AC was achieved by projecting the image in the 2D screen display with higher ID and it resulted in higher SD and higher NF. Regarding the symptoms, our results found that lower symptoms were achieved by projecting the image in the 2D screen display with lower ID and it resulted in lower PS, and lower RFD.Practitioner Summary: The SEM could provide valuable theoretical foundations to identify the interrelationship among eye movement measures, AC, and symptoms particularly for VR researchers and interface developers.

Versatile N‐Doped MXene Ink for Printed Electrochemical Energy Storage Application

AbstractPrinting is regarded as a revolutionary and feasible technique to guide the fabrication of versatile functional systems with designed architectures. 2D MXenes are nowadays attractive in printed energy storage devices. However, owing to the van der Waals interaction between the MXene layers, the restacking issues within the printed electrodes can significantly impede the ion/electrolyte transport and hence handicap the electrochemical performances. Herein, a melamine formaldehyde templating method is demonstrated to develop crumpled nitrogen‐doped MXene (MXene‐N) nanosheets. The nitrogen doping boosts the electrochemical performances of MXene via enhanced conductivity and redox activity. Accordingly, two types of MXene‐N inks are prepared throughout the optimization of the ink viscosity to fit the 2D screen printing and 3D extrusion printing, respectively. As a result, the screen printed MXene‐N microsupercapacitor delivers an areal capacitance of 70.1 mF cm−2 and outstanding mechanical robustness. Furthermore, the 3D‐printed MXene‐N based supercapacitor manifests an areal capacitance of 8.2 F cm−2 for a three‐layered electrode and readily stores a high areal energy density of 0.42 mWh cm−2. The approach to harnessing such versatile MXene‐N inks offers distinctive insights into the printed energy storage systems with high areal energy density and large scalability.

Three-dimensional surface models of autopsied human brains constructed from multiple photographs by photogrammetry.

Virtual three-dimensional (3D) surface models of autopsied human brain hemispheres were constructed by integrating multiple two-dimensional (2D) photographs. To avoid gravity-dependent deformity, formalin-fixed hemispheres were placed on non-refractile, transparent acrylic plates, which allowed us to take 2D photographs from various different angles. Photogrammetric calculations using software (ReCap Pro cloud service, Autodesk, San Rafael, CA, USA) allowed us calculate the 3D surface of each brain hemisphere. Virtual brain models could be moved and rotated freely to allow smooth, seamless views from different angles and different magnifications. When viewing rotating 3D models on 2D screens, 3D aspects of the models were enhanced using motion parallax. Comparison of different brains using this method allowed us to identify disease-specific patterns of macroscopic atrophy, that were not apparent in conventional 2D photographs. For example, we observed frontal lobe atrophy in a progressive supranuclear palsy brain, and even more subtle atrophy in the superior temporal gyrus in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Thus, our method facilities recognition of gyral atrophy. In addition, it provides a much more powerful and suitable way of visualizing the overall appearance of the brain as a three-dimensional structure. Comparison of normal and diseased brains will allow us to associate different macroscopic changes in the brain to clinical manifestations of various diseases.

빔 프로젝 터를 이용한 혼합현실 확장 시스템 : Beyond the Sight

Recently commercial mixed-reality devices have be launched and a variety of mixed-reality content has produced, but narrow field of view, which appear to be hardware technical limitations, are mentioned as an important issue for hindering immersion and limiting the scope of use. We propose a new innovative system that cooperate multiple beam projectors and a number of mixed reality devices. Using this technology, users can maximize immersion and minimize frustration of narrow viewing angles through 3D object rendering on background of large 2D screens. This system, named BtS (Beyond the Sight), is implemented on a client-server basis and includes the ability to calibrate between devices, share spatial coordinate systems, and synchronize real-time renderings as core modules. In this paper, each configuration module is described in detail and the possibility of its performance and application is shown through the introduction of mixed reality content case created using BtS system.