4th Century AD Research Articles

Analysis of compound nouns containing the word "Alp" in Mahmud Kāshgarī's Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk

Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk by Mahmud Kāshgarī is a significant work in the study of linguistics and literary works from the 11th century AD. It covers cultural, social, political, geographical subjects, and the use of compound words such as "Alp" is prevalent throughout the book. The work is considered unique among the Turk nation from a scientific, historical, and linguistic point of view. The Kāshgarī's linguistic view, the introduction of words, grammatical rules, and phonetic features of Turkic languages are examined in this book. The work was written during the reign of the Khaqani Turks, and it reflects the use of specific old Turkish nouns by members of the nobility. For example, each member of the nobility had old Turkish nouns like: Tegin çağr, Tegin küç, Qutluğ Tegin, Tegin kömüş, Tuğ Tegin, börı Tegin, Toŋa Tegin, Arsalan Tegin, tuğrul Tegin, Yenal Tegin, Qara Tegin. The Khaqan kings also used the word "Öge(üke) Tegit" to refer to their youngest children and individuals removed from their positions. The book analyzes the structure of compound nouns with the word "Alp", such as "Alp Aya", "Alp Er Toŋa”, "AlpAağut", and "AlpTegin", using the library method. The semantic and formal features of these compound nouns are also examined, drawing on reliable scientific sources and data from Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk. Overall, this research provides a detailed examination of the linguistic and historical significance of Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk.

Ископаемые кости миоцен-голоценовых верблюдов Евразии (Россия): минералого-геохимические свойства и экологические реконструкции

Using a wide complex of mineralogical-geochemical and isotope-geochemical methods we studied, a unique series of samples of fossil camels’ bone remains taken from Eurasian localities from the northwestern Black Sea region to western Transbaikalia and Mongolia, dated in the chronological range from the Late Miocene (6 Ma) until the 14th century AD. The obtained results indicated the mineralogical and geochemical properties of fossil bones as very effective way of ecological and climatic reconstructions and interpretation of the evolutionary history of mammals.

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Палеоэкологические условия финала сарматской эпохи и их влияния на общества скотоводов и земледельцев Восточной Европы и Западной Сибири

The paper make an attempt to consider the cultural and historical events marking the final stage of the Sarmatian epoch from the point of view of climate dynamics in Eastern Europe. It has been confirmed that the Late Sarmatian period in the Lower Volga region coincided with increasing climate humidity and was characterized by high precipitation during the cold season. This occurred in conditions of the Siberian High weakening, resulted to penetration of the Atlantic and Mediterranean cyclones into the inland regions of Eastern Europe and the western areas of Western Siberia. This led to high snow cover formation and provoked a series of other unfavorable factors that triggered migrations and population decline in nomadic or semi-nomadic societies whose economic basis was cattle herding. We suppose that this climate change scenario was not limited to the Lower Volga region. In the article we analyze paleoclimatic, cultural and historical events of the 3rd – 4th centuries AD which occured in the adjacent regions. We found that during this period the Sargat culture, whose economy was based on semi-nomadic cattle breeding, was declining in most of the forest-steppe east of the Urals. The population in the Southern Urals almost completely disappeared by the last decades 3rd century AD. The area of the Late Sarmatian culture from the Lower Volga region is reduced to the Astrakhan Right Bank of the Volga. Only the Lower Don and the Sal-Manych steppes remained inhabited, which is probably due to the regional resource base specifics. Therefore, in most part of Eastern Europe and the western regions of Western Siberia, the population was declining or disappearing long before the Huns invasion, and increase in climate humidity was among the contributing factors. At the same time, the humid climate of the 3rd – 4th centuries AD had a beneficial impact on the crop production. A high winter precipitation provided the flourish of agricultural societies.

Copper-alloy belt fittings and elite networking in Early Medieval Central Europe

This paper attempts to change the traditional view of the Late Avar belt fittings, which in the 8th century AD delineated an extremely dense communication network within the Carpathian Basin and beyond, by using a groundbreaking combination of iconography, energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), lead isotope analysis, digital morphometry and 3D comparative prototyping. It presents a complex analysis of bronze belt ends decorated with an exceptional scene of a snake eating a frog-like creature, discovered in the last decade in Czech Republic, Hungary and Germany. According to the iconography, this motif represents an important cosmogonic and fertility myth, known to various early medieval populations living in Central Europe. Some of these belt ends come from the same workshop and/or are derived from a common model, even though they were found in very distant regions. The study also focuses on the provenance of the raw material used in the production of Avar-style belt fittings in general. For the first time, it was possible to locate the Early Medieval source of copper in the Slovak Ore Mountains, using lead isotope analysis.

ManuskripAl-QuranMadura:AnalisisRagamHiasDalamManuskripAl-QuranMss4322

One of the uniqueness found in the old al-Quran in the archipelago is its luxury with the beauty of decorative illumination art. Ornaments found in the Quran are usually only found in the front, middle and end of the Quran. Each decoration sketched on the manuscript has its own meaning and is related to the life of the local community. Therefore, this article aims to introduce an al-Quran manuscript originating from Madura Indonesia and then explain in detail the characteristics and types of decoration found in the al-Quran manuscript MSS 4322, which has been collected in the National Library of Malaysia. This study uses analysis methods based on library research and secondary materials such as books, manuscripts and journal articles. Interviews also conducted to obtain data related to decorative illumination art information on manuscripts. The findings show that the manuscript al-Quran MSS 4322 originates from the country of Madura, Indonesia. This is because the names of Pangeran Jimat and queen Tirtonegoro are written on the manuscript of the Qur'an, who were rulers in Sumenep, Madura in the 18th century AD. This research also shows manuscript writing using daluang paper with a neat, attractive and consistent manuscript writing model written in a three-line frame with a combination of red and black. The illumination is very beautiful with the drawing of spiral leaves as a result of the combination of various colors. Hardcover is thick, using leather from a tree carved with a floral patterned drawing according to the "block" plated with copper and gold powder on the leather and flaps of the volume. Findings show that the author proposes that this manuscript can be digitized as a scholarly heritage so that it will last a long time while also helping the community to more easily access it in a digital form that is sustainable in nature. In conclusion, the ornamentation in this al-Quran manuscript is a masterpiece that will elevate the dignity of the decorative art of previous scholars' hand-drawn academically and more authoritatively to the digital generation, especially in the field of creative art of Islamic cultural heritage, especially in Malaysia.

The Antequera (Spain) Slate: an undetermined writing found in a Roman-type Villa and the need of revision of Iberia history, anthropology and archaeology

The Antequera Slate is a striking scripted finding in the Roman “Villa de la Estacion” (Railway Station Villa) archaeological site which was in use in its Roman known period approximately between 100 years BC and 450 AD. Some of the slate incised signs were familiar to us because they were similar to the so-called pre-Iberian-Tartessian scripted incise or picketed signs found in a Megalithic context or not in rocks and stones in Iberia, Canary Islands and Algerian Sahara. The antiquity of these signs may vary depending the place but some may have been done thousands of years BC. We have put forward that these Antequera Slate signs may be pre-Iberian-Tartessian that had remained in Iberian autochthonous rural or aristocratic people during centuries, but a firm conclusion is premature. Otherwise, the scripts are not done in Roman or any other standard writing. Visigoth scripted slates were started to be performed in Central West Iberia when Visigoths appeared in Iberia, together with Suebi, Vandals and Alans. The Antequera Slate incise signs may have been originated by these new cultures, but no Visigoth tables signs have been found with similar signs to Antequera Slate signs. Taking into account that we do not now either the language/symbols or writing of many Visigothic slates (5th- 8th century AD) nor the Antequera Slate, we also agree with other scholars that this is an important enigma which does not fit with archaeology, anthropology and history of Iberian Peninsula and that all these disciplines should be revised in the context detailed in this and others work.

PHILOSOPHICAL AND RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS OF CHINA AS THE BASIS OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The social life of China, its culture and art were determined by the local religion of Taoism, and the main postulates were laid out in the treatise "Daodejing" ("The Book of Tao and De", 6th century AD). Accordingly, a person with the whole way of life became a participant in the cycle of phenomena in nature, and therefore felt that he was not the main creation of God, as it was in Christianity, but only one of the components of the universe.
 Unlike Christianity, the phenomenon of Buddhism consists in the absence of a "logos" – the deity at the heart of the religion, since initially the image of the Buddha was interpreted as the image of a person who has achieved enlightenment. In Buddhism, there was no thesis about the value of human existence, which was interpreted as one-moment and changeable.
 Now let's trace how the specific philosophical and religious teachings of China influenced art and architecture.
 This is clearly visible both in secular buildings and in the temples of the three religions. The phenomenon of the transformation of the borrowed religion of Buddhism on local soil can be illustrated by the example of the unique cave temple complex of Dunhuang, the creation of which lasted over a thousand years, from the 4th to the 14th century. On the example of the wall paintings of sanctuaries, it is possible to trace how the borrowed subjects and techniques were gradually diversified and improved under the influence of local painting techniques. Moreover, scenes of secular life, portraits of benefactors, as well as a pantheon of Taoist deities were gradually added to the purely Buddhist subjects (fetian – the Chinese version of the heavenly apsaras, lords of Fuxi and NЯwa, etc.).
 The principles of feng shui and established hierarchy were also maintained in secular architecture and landscape design. So, all the main facades were oriented to the south, and the screens acted as barriers for evil spirits (in the gardens, such a function was performed by "natural screens" – "green screens", when one natural picture covered the other and it was impossible to view the entire garden at the same time. Chinese garden became the personification of the harmony of the world, therefore each landscape picture was carefully thought out. It was believed that gazebos – small pavilions in the garden became a place where a person encountered the laws of perfect harmony of nature. 
 An analysis of the relationship between traditional Chinese architecture and art and traditional philosophical and religious teachings proves that architecture and art were subject to the principles of feng shui and local "religious syncretism".

Frankish and local technological traditions in greyware pottery production at l'esquerda (Catalonia), 7th-9th centuries AD: Examining distribution patterns and exchange at the southern Carolingian border

The archaeological site of L’Esquerda was a distinctive fortified settlement from the Late Bronze Age until the violent destruction of the medieval village in CE 1314. After several centuries of abandonment during the Roman period, peasant populations reoccupied the site. It played military role during the political struggles of the Visigothic kingdom in the 6th and 7th centuries AD and became a strategic site when the Frankish king Louis the Pious strengthened the Hispanic March against the Andalusi Muslim domains. Throughout this period, the settlement was periodically refortified, and a wall enclosing the main access to the site was built. From the time of the early medieval reoccupation of the site, greyware pottery was the primary artefact used for daily cooking purposes. We analysed one hundred samples from this site by means of thin section petrography in order to explore the changes that occurred from a diachronic perspective in accordance with the historical vicissitudes of the site. The results showed a shift towards more regionalized consumption of pottery and the abandonment of previous technological practices. Our study aims to determine whether the presence of imported Frankish products, if any, influenced changes in local pottery production, such as the use of new recipes or firing conditions.

Forensic facial approximation of an individual with achondroplasia from medieval cemetery in Central Europe

Achondroplasia (ACH, achondroplastic dwarfism) represents the most common form of skeletal dysplasia, occurring in c. 4 out of every 100,000 births. This study presents a computer-based facial approximation of the skull of a male individual living with ACH, who died at 30–45 years of age and was buried in Łekno, Poland between the 9th and 11th centuries AD. For the approximation procedure, soft tissue data from CT scans and ultrasonic measurements performed on living individuals were used. Additionally, an anatomical deformation technique was applied to arrive at the most reliable reconstruction of the achondroplastic individual's appearance. To our knowledge, this is the first facial depiction of a person with achondroplasia, and one of the few showing a head of an individual suffering from a hereditary disease, with dimensions and shape differing from the population average values.

Analysing Roman pottery workshops in the Civitas Viromanduorum (France, Picardy)

Pottery kilns in the Vermandois territory were discovered in the north of the Roman province Gallia Belgica (covering present-day Picardy in northern France) during various excavation campaigns, conducted from the end of the 19th century until 2020. Archaeologists from the French Institut National de Recherches Archéologiques Préventives (INRAP) excavated 28 pottery kilns from the Roman period, dated between the Tiberian period (14–37 AD) and the beginning of the 4th century AD. These were located in three main areas: Muille-Villette, Montescourt-Lizerolles, Vermand, and Saint-Quentin. Several others were excavated overlying earlier kilns and craft production at Beuvraignes and near Noyon. The pottery waste included fine ware (terra nigra, micaceous tableware), coarse ware (dishes, jars, pots, dolia, flagons, bottles) amphorae and pipes. During the archaeological operations, we systematically questioned our excavation methods according to the preservation of the remains and aimed for an exhaustive study of the ceramics. Building upon the excavation data, this study examined the pottery waste from the workshops at Muille-Villette, Montescourt-Lizerolles, and Saint-Quentin compositionally, adopting archaeometric analysis (OM and WD-XRF) to reconstruct the production technology, and using archaeomagnetic analysis to date the kiln structures. The results offer a first insight into the pottery craft in the Vermandois area, including specific features and technological traditions of the potters, as well as the specialisation of ceramic production and distribution.

A Comparative Evaluation and Understanding of the Taxonomical Characteristics, Pharmacological Attributes, and Therapeutical Potential of Tulasi (Ocimum sanctum Linn. Linn.) and Bhustrina (Hyptis sauveolans (Linn.) Poit.)

Usage of medicinal plants as a source for medicine has been the base of Ayurveda and has been in practice since the Vedic period. This has been a driving force for exponential growth and globalization of the science through ages into what we face in the current generation. Increased demand of a drug ultimately leads to over exploitation of the drug and brings forward the risk of shortage, abuse, and unavailability of the drug. The issue of unavailability of a drug has been prevailing since the 16th century AD and to overcome these issues, various classical literatures like Yoga ratnakara have stressed on the concept of Abhava pratinidhi Dravya or substitutes. With each passing day, newer and newer pharmaceutical products are being introduced into the market utilizing the available resources, hence the necessity of introducing and replacing endangered and risky medicinal plants have become inevitable to balance out the ecosystem. Tulasi (Ocimum sanctum Linn. Linn.) is an Ayurvedic drug used in clinical practice, pharmaceutical industries, and clinical applications for their diverse and potent pharmacological activities. Even though Tulasi naturally grows as a weed, excessive usage, Harsh climatic conditions, and demand for its antimicrobial activity has put Tulasi at risk for its availability. This study is focused on another drug “Bhustrina”- Hyptis sauveolans Poit which also belongs to Lamiaceae family and is a common weed. The study mainly emphasizes to evaluate and understand and compare the similarity in taxonomical characteristics, Pharmacological attributes, and therapeutical potential of Tulasi and Bhustrina and thereby include Bhustrina as a potential replacement for Tulasi.

The 5th - 6th Century AD Settlement from the Fortress of legio V Macedonica at Potaissa

The 5th - 6th Century AD Settlement from the Fortress of legio V Macedonica at Potaissa

Some Aspects of Religiosity in Ostia Antica Through Mosaics

While mythology is one of the most widespread themes in the mosaics of Ostia Antica (both floor and non-floor), some compositions have a marked importance from a religious and cultic point of view. We intend to examine the mosaic representations of aspects of the Ostian cults, among which that of Mithras stands out in a particular way for its diffusion and for the amplitude of its testimonies. The mosaic undoubtedly had the purpose of immediate visual communication of its contents, also because the religion of Mithras was accepted above all by low-level believers for whom communication through images was more suitable. However, in Ostia, among the followers of the cult, there is evidence of high-ranking personages, perhaps even belonging to the imperial family. Next to that of Mithras we want to highlight the cult of Sabazio, of other oriental divinities in the past traces have been found, sometimes rightly and sometimes wrongly, in the House of the Dioscures, in the House of the Fishes, in the Neptune’s baths and in the opus sectile building of the Marine Gate (4th century AD).

Half-Human Half-Vegetal Hybrids in Eastern Mosaics

The aim of this paper is to investigate the evolution of the use of half-human half-vegetal figures, the so-called Rankenfrau and Rankengott, in the pavements of the Eastern Mediterranean, from their appearance in the Classical period to their appropriation in the Roman and Christian times. The contextualised analysis of this corpus, combined with a comparison to other media such as architectural sculpture, provide a good opportunity to better understand to what extent the motif varied at different times and how the worldview of the commissioners of the decors can, or not, affect their meaning. In the Classical and Hellenistic contexts, vegetalisation of the human body seems to plastically translate the prerogatives of different divinities of wild nature, growth, and life. Through the mastery of their primitive savagery, these deities allow the coexistence of two different natures and bring divine prosperity into everyday life. In Roman times these figures inherited from the Greek world went through an unprecedented formal and syntactic diversification. A new variant is even created: the foliate head, which concentrates the force of a vital principle and appears as the metonymic representation of its primordial and spontaneous fecundity. In Eastern pavements, bearded and beardless foliate heads are associated with young foliate boys in the peopled scroll borders of the public rooms of rich houses. They evoked the mastery of a vital impulse that is made beneficial for wealthy owners. During the 6th century AD, whilst the foliate heads survive in the pavements of Christian monuments, the Rankenfrau and the Rankengott seem to disappear from the Eastern repertoire.

Mithras exhibited. Perspectives of sensory museology in Mithraic contexts

The material evidence of the Roman cult of Mithras is one of the most visible and best-preserved heritage of Roman religion from the period of the 2nd- 4th century AD. There are several in situ and reconstructed mithraea in European archaeological parks and museums, where the memory of the cult and its worshippers are evoked. The paper examines some of the most well-known case studies of the Mithraic sanctuaries, focusing on in situ archaeological sites, reconstructed mithraea and museal spaces from Romania, where new, sensorial methods can be used.

The Most Important Medical Theories and Works of Abu Sahl Masihi, an Iranian Scientist during the Golden Civilization of Islam

Abu Sahl Masihi is a physician, philosopher, mathematician, and famous astronomer of the first half of the 11th century AD. Some scientists have written that Abu Sahl was the master of Avicenna.This study aims to introduce him by using the most important medical theories and works of Abu Sahl Masihi.This library study has been carried out among the most important medical works of Abu Sahl Masihi. Common searches were performed on valid databases and papers. Abu Sahl did not agree with the detailed description of the treatment issues. He focused on the scientific and theoretical part of medicine including General basics and principles of prevention. In his medical works, Abu Sahl has explained the theoretical part in order and simply and the therapeutic part briefly. He has rejected other physicians' opinions that considered menstrual bleeding to be fetal food and thus ending it during menopause as a reason for termination of pregnancy and said that such blood that the body repels cannot be the source of fetal food. He considered the healthy blood of the mother's body as the source of fetal food. Like Aristotle, Abu Sahl has regarded the heart as the life force center, innate heat, and vital spirit. He also had a significant view of the heart structure and the vessels connected to it. We can introduce Abu Sahl as one of the pioneers of the theory of the beginning of digestion of food through the mouth due to being impregnated with saliva by the enzymes in the secretions of the digestive system. Despite the importance of Abu Sahl’s works, his writings have been less considered. It seems that more research on the noteworthy ideas of this great scientist is needed by scholars and researchers.

Reopening Graves. Post-Funerary Activities at Moravian Migration Period Cemeteries (5th and 6th Centuries AD)

Reopening Graves. Post-Funerary Activities at Moravian Migration Period Cemeteries (5th and 6th Centuries AD)

Taj Mahal is the Crystallization of Iranian Architecture and a Symbol of God's Throne on Earth

The Taj Mahal is basically related to the idea of Islamic architecture; although the influence of Islamic architecture on the Taj Mahal is clearly visible, traces of the influence of Iranian, Hindu, British, and Akbari architecture are evident in its structure. Taj Mahal is often known as a monument of love, but you can see it as a combination of architectural traditions and a monument of Iranian and Indian multiculturalism.According to the beginning of the arrival of Muslims in the Indus Valley, in the 8th century AD, except for the ruins of a small mosque, there is no other trace left from this period. But in the twelfth century AD, the arrival of Muslims started again with the creation of valuable works. After various periods and in the era known as the Mongols (Indian Gorkan), the architecture of the subcontinent achieved great prosperity with a significant influence of Iranian art. In historical sources, the names of Iranian personalities who played a key role in the construction of the Taj Mahal, such as Essa Shirazi (designer), Amanat Khan Shirazi (calligrapher) and Mohammad Hanif Kandahari, can be seen. Iranian art is one of the most essential identifiers of Islamic architecture, and the Taj Mahal is one of the most obvious examples of the presence of Iranian artists. The result of the research shows that due to the relations that Iran and India have had throughout history, especially during the Safavid and Gurkanian periods, the architectural culture and the construction of gardens and garden-mazars in India have been influenced by Iranian culture, literature, art and architecture. And for this reason, the Taj Mahal can be considered as the manifestation of the art of Islamic and Iranian architectural design in the Indian subcontinent, and what is called Mongolian architecture is essentially "Indian-Iranian Islamic architecture".

DATING OF WOODEN HERITAGE OBJECTS IN THE GLIWICE 14C AND MASS SPECTROMETRY LABORATORY

ABSTRACT We present case studies on three objects of high importance for cultural heritage in southern Poland, dated in years 2018–2022 at the Gliwice 14C and Mass Spectrometry Laboratory with radiocarbon (14C) and dendrochronology methods. The first was a richly ornamented wooden cane, discovered during excavations on the market in Bytom city. The cane can be associated with medieval court proceedings. The archaeological context indicates the 13th century AD, and the 14C result corresponds perfectly with this time, confirming that it is the oldest object of this type in Poland. The second was a 4-m-tall oak column from St. Leonard Church in Lipnica Murowana, a UNESCO heritage site. The local story said it was previously devoted to Światowid, a pagan deity. Our analysis excluded the pre-Christian age, as the tree was felled no earlier than the late 15th century, which is in agreement with historical records. The third was a wooden Saint Lawrence Church in Bobrowniki. The presbytery was covered with up to five layers of polychromic paintings, some of high artistic value. We dated three samples from the original wooden board, and by wiggle-matching, the calibrated age interval was narrowed to 1731–1754 cal AD.