19th Century Russian Research Articles

The Specter of the Dangerous Classes

Abstract This article examines a formative moment in Russian social thought. The origins of modern research about urban society lie in the years after 1815, when French and British writers developed new methods for analyzing poverty, crime, and other aspects of city life. This literature, especially in the aftermath of the cholera pandemic and revolutions of 1830–1832, painted an alarming picture of slums teeming with “dangerous classes” of paupers and criminals. Russians joined this discussion with three books about Moscow and St. Petersburg by Vasilii Androssov, Aleksandr Bashutskii, and Andrei Zablotskii-Desiatovskii. These authors adopted the new Western research methods but claimed that Russia was free of “dangerous classes” of the Western type thanks to the unique virtues of the imperial regime and the Russian folk. The article argues that these writers helped to give 19th century Russian social research both its methodological sophistication and its distinctive ideological voice.

Философские идеи Н.Н. Страхова в контексте современных проблем исторической памяти

Historical memory is one of the key problems in contemporary philosophy of his­tory, political philosophy, and social philosophy. Philosophers and humanities scholars discuss its possible specific characteristics based on the contexts of their fields of knowledge, but the contentiousness of this phenomenon persists despite their intellectual efforts. To identify new contexts for interpreting historical me­mory and to reveal new perspectives for understanding its modes of existence in culture and society, the authors turn to the history of Russian philosophy, within which a unique attitude towards history as a fundamental basis of humani­tarian knowledge was formulated (unlike the Western tradition of the philosophy of science, where history is generally treated as a relativizing factor). The focus of the authors is on the intellectual legacy of the Russian philosopher Nikolai Nikolaevich Strakhov, whose concept of the philosophy of science and under­standing opens up new opportunities for interpreting “historical memory”. The authors immerse the problem of historical memory in the following contexts of Strakhov’s philosophy: 1) science as a cultural phenomenon, 2) ethnic psycho­logy, and 3) existential themes that reveal the specificity of communication among 19th-century Russian philosophers, their methods of preserving histo­rical memory, and transmitting its meanings to future generations. Special at­tention is given to two different interpretations of the concept of “experience” in N.N. Strakhov’s philosophy (as the empirical basis of scientific research and as “life experience” aimed at expanding the horizon of understanding reality)

Constitutionalism in Russia in the Early 20th Century

Constitutionalism in Russia in the Early 20th Century

Public Places in the 18th-Century Russian City: Church

Public Places in the 18th-Century Russian City: Church

Возможность сохранения традиционных социокультурных ориентиров человечества при реализации трансгуманистического проекта

The article is devoted to the search for the optimal path of controlled techno-bio-socio evolution, which will pre-serve the humanity’s traditional constants. Based on the previously conducted research, the author argues that compliance with the principle of continuity is possible only if the program of moderate transhumanism, which involves a delicate modernization of human nature while preserving its essence, is implemented. A similar transhumanist narrative is also evident in early 20th-century Russian scientific thought. The conducted compara-tive analysis of the main provisions of Russian philosophy of the Silver Age and the philosophy of moderate transhumanism allows us to assert that they coincide in terms of determining the limits of redesigning human nature. The humaneness and ethical elaboration of the ideas of Russian thinkers provide grounds for their use as socio-cultural guidelines for the philosophy of moderate transhumanism. The methodological basis of the study is the principles of systemic and comparative historical approaches. According to the author, these princi-ples enable the achievement of a synergistic effect, thereby enriching the concept of moderate transhuman-ism.

Особенности функционирования аллегории в произведениях русской монашеской словесности XX века

The aim of the research is to present the main features of the functioning of allegory in the works of 20th-century Russian monastic writers. The paper examines Christian allegory as a specific tropeic phenomenon. The specificity of the use of Christian allegory lies in its orientation toward the culture-forming texts of the Bible; in its fixation in the didactic parts of the text dedicated to the salvation of the soul, spiritual perfection, the need to strive for virtue; in the authors’ appeal to allegorical images with stable interpretations embedded in the culture; in its concentration on allegories that are part of the established allegorical imagery corpus, which formed as Christian literature were developing. The central place in the work is occupied by the study of the representation of ideas important for church writers through allegory, the actualization of Christian meanings. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the fact that it uses theolinguistic analysis to study the works of Russian monastic literature, indicates the stylistic functions of allegory in the ecclesiastical-religious style, and identifies the main features of the use of allegory. As a result, the following has been proved: when affirming thoughts related to the perniciousness of sins, authors resort to Christian allegories, using images of a swamp, abyss, net, thorns, tree branches, spiderwebs; when describing the life of a person and the path of a Christian, images of a ship, boat, sea, storm, and house are used; in reasoning about virtues, images of water, sun, and sky are chosen. There are several stylistic functions of allegory identified in the texts of monastic literature, such as pictorial, syndicating, emotive, prescriptive, meaning-forming, didactic, axiological. The features of the functional orientation of allegory in the works of monastic literature are as follows: the use with didactic religious-Christian goals, i.e., aversion from sin and encouragement to acquire virtues, strive for the salvation of the soul, moral perfection, spiritual alertness, and the cultivation of the inner person.

Research on the Translation and Influence of LiaoZhai ZhiYi in 20th Century Russia

With the accelerated exchange of different civilizations in the context of globalization, the overseas dissemination of Chinese classic literature is also playing an increasingly important role in shaping national cultural confidence. Since the beginning of the 21st century, cultural exchanges between China and Russia have become increasingly close, and the two countries have also invested key attention in the relationship between Russian literature and Chinese literature. In the past, research on the Russian translation of Chinese literature was mostly limited to the field of translation and cultural customs, while there was a lack of attention to the phenomenon of Chinese literature entering the creation of Russian writers. This leads to a lack of concrete and clear experience and theory in exploring the overseas dissemination of Chinese classic literature and promoting mutual learning and learning among different civilizations in the new situation of cultural exchange. Liaozhai Zhiyi represents the highest achievement of ancient Chinese classical short stories and is also an outstanding representative of Chinese supernatural and legendary novels. This article intends to provide an overview of the dissemination process of Pu Songling's " LiaoZhai ZhiYi " in 20th century Russia from a historical perspective, using a literature review method; On this basis, comprehensively accepting theories, comparative literary principles, etc., this study analyzes the influence of "LiaoZhai ZhiYi" on contemporary Russian literature in the 20th century, as well as the reasons and motivations behind this phenomenon. Research has found that since the beginning of the 20th century, the motivation to seek a national way out and reshape national values has driven Russia to turn its attention to China, and the characteristics of legendary supernatural novels have garnered a lot of attention; As a result, "LiaoZhai ZhiYi" formed a continuous and tumultuous process of dissemination in Russia, with Alexeyev's translation having the greatest impact; On this basis, 20th century Russian literature has formed a phenomenon of displacement or displacement in terms of characters, cultural symbols, philosophical ideas, etc., providing specific references for mutual learning and mutual learning between different cultures.

Church policies of Empress Elizabeth of Russia

Elizaveta Petrovna, an 18th-century Russian empress, cared for the religious beliefs of her subjects. In her legislature, she addressed the problem of religious upbringing of children and ceremonial requirements of adults, which included behaviour during church services and the frequency of confession. There was a measure of religious tolerance under her rule, but attempts for religious conversion could be made only by Orthodox believers. Her own life was filled with incessant entertainment coinciding with the admonition of her subjects to be restrained. Elizabeth tried to balance her life of pleasure with her excessive piety, ostensibly ritualistic and easily mixed with entertainment.

CHILDHOOD IMAGE IN THE NOVEL “DAWN” BY B. K. ZAITSEV

The purpose of the article is to consider the specifics of depicting the theme of childhood in the novel “Dawn” by B. K. Zaitsev. In modern literary studies, the theme of childhood in the works of Russian writers who found themselves in exile after the revolutionary events is actively being developed and studied. The relevance of the work is due to the fact that it explores one of the important topics in the literature of the Russian diaspora. The novelty of the research consists in comparing the novel by B. K. Zaitsev with 19th century Russian classical prose about childhood, in clarifying the question of traditions and innovation in solving the theme of childhood by the writer of the Russian diaspora. The paper considers theoretical issues related to the spatial and temporal structure of the novel “Dawn,” the disclosure of the figurative and motivational series, artistic means and techniques. All this is necessary not only to understand the peculiarities of the embodiment of the childhood image in B. K. Zaitsev’s prose, but also to determine the national identity of Russian literature about childhood. In the center of Zaitsev’s novelis the image of a child living in a manor, which is depicted according to Russian literary traditions of the 18th — 19th centuries. Describing the ancestral “nest” with its material content, special semantics, autobiographical basis, recreating the world of a child, B. K. Zaitsev relies on the novel “Childhood” by L. N. Tolstoy. Idyllic time dominates the structure of the novel “Dawn.” Its important components include the motifs of light, aromas, smells, sounds of nature, the synesthesia characteristic of a child’s worldview. The child experiences the fullness of the joy of being akin to being in Eden. The world of childhood, permeated with Divine grace, apart from biographical and historical time, is addressed to the category of Eternity. Childhood is spiritualized and sacralized. Mother and father are organically included in the world of the novel, associated with the idea of the orderliness and stability of being. Family meals together and rituals become events that create an atmosphere of happiness. Children’s worldview is presented through a system of oppositions of “their own”/“someone else’s”space. Childhood is associated with thanatological events. The description of the reading circle becomes mandatory in revealing the inner world of the child hero. The writer’s novel is an example of an image of childhood conditioned by a new era, modernist innovations consisting in changing the relationship between the author and the child.

Художественно-педагогическая реконструкция и теоретический анализ опыта взаимоотношений «учитель – ученик» в образовательной сфере России начала ХХ в.

The study aims to determine the role of a teacher’s personality in solving moral and pedagogical problems arising in the process of teacher-student relations in the educational sphere of Russia in the early 20th century by conducting a theoretical analysis of individual documentary fiction texts by K. G. Paustovsky in the genre of documentary prose. The paper substantiates the importance of the priority spiritual and moral principles and values of Russian pedagogy and psychology as the basis of the traditional knowledge paradigm of education, actualizes their relevance in modern Russian theory and practice. The study is original in that it is the first to reveal the role of a teacher’s personality primarily as an educator and bearer of moral universal values in the traditional knowledge paradigm of education based on K. G. Paustovsky’s documentary fiction stories about the teacher-student relations in the educational sphere of Russia in the early 20th century. In addition, the paper determines the importance of a teacher’s personal self-esteem (professional reflection) and their individual threshold of tolerance and responsibility for the process of forming the personal image of pupils, humanistic qualities and psychological characteristics of students. As a result, it was found that an essential factor of success in solving moral and psychological problems in the system of teacher-student relations in both traditional and modern humanistic paradigms of education is the personality of a teacher, their “human factor”. The professional reflection of a teacher, which is their personal self-assessment manifested in psychological, creative, moral and mental abilities at an active and interactive level to influence the spiritual world of a pupil, creates conditions for the movement of the educational process towards the creative self-expression of a student’s personality. A teacher’s ability to correctly assess and take into account students’ personal and psychological characteristics ensures the formation of conditions for pupils’ personal growth, their values and worldview orientations.

The Socialist Art – Teaching or Rewriting

The article focuses on the phenomenon of soc-art as part of the parodic reimagining of socialist realism literature. It examines its secondary reception as part of the nostalgia of the 70s-80s of the 20th century, which is a lack, a hiatus, a non-realization, but a part of the past of thousands of people. The phenomenon is placed against the back-ground of Bulgarian literature and the story "The Anyuta Case" by the writer Alek Popov is drawn for analysis. This story shows the way in which Bulgarian literature in the 90s of the 20th century ironically and without a lack of nostalgia interprets the time of socialist realism and its values. The aesthetics of socialist realism are turned upside down, and the writer demonstrates all the insanity and idiocy of the reality he was called to reflect. Unlike the late 20th century Russian soc-art, which is perceived more nostalgically than ironically, this work from the late 20th century unambiguous-ly reveals the scars of a time that, despite the usual nostalgia of the generation, could not sound nostalgic.

Female Image in Netochka Nezvanova: A Study Based on Feminist Perspective

This study delves into Fyodor Dostoevsky's unfinished novel, Netochka Nezvanova through a feminist lens, exploring the nuanced portrayals of female characters and their significance in the narrative. By examining the interactions, relationships, and development of key female figures such as Netochka, Sophia Alexandrovna, and Alexandra Mikhailovna, the paper highlights how these characters challenge and are limited in the patriarchal structures of 19th-century Russian society. The study argues that Dostoevsky, perhaps unconventionally for his time, presents a complex and empathetic exploration of the female experience, showcasing the struggles and resilience of his female protagonists. Through the character of Netochka, the narrative foregrounds the quest for identity and autonomy amidst societal constraints, emphasizing the importance of education, artistic expression, and female solidarity as means of resistance and self-realization. Netochka Nezvanova emerges as a rich text for feminist analysis, offering insights into the complexities of female agency, the critique of gendered societal expectations, and the enduring relevance of Dostoevsky's portrayal of women's pursuit of freedom and dignity.

Поздние комедии А. Ф. Писемского в диалоге с русской комедийной традицией XVIII века

The aim of the research is to reveal the forms of continuity of A. F. Pisemsky’s late plays “The Predators” and “Financial Genius” to the 18th century Russian social comedy. Scientific novelty: Pisemsky’s late comedies are considered for the first time in terms of their orientation towards a dialogue with the national genre tradition, originating in the plays of the 18th century. It has been established that Pisemsky’s comedies enter into a dialogue with the tradition, as evidenced by their similarities to Y. B. Knyazhnin’s “The Boaster” and V. V. Kapnist’s “The Sneak”. Similarities have been found in the sphere of problems, plot, motives, character system, finals’ poetics, and characterology techniques. In “Financial Genius”, as well as in “The Boaster”, cunning deceit is exposed, and the motives of imposture and boasting are similar. The connection of “The Predators” with “The Talebearer” at the level of the problem is manifested in the condemnation of the social “calamity”, which in both comedies takes the place of the main character; the comic fades into the background, the finals convey the idea of the incurability of social evil, which brings in tragic overtones. Pisemsky’s orientation towards the artistic experience of the comedy writers of the 18th century testifies to the continuity of the Russian comedy tradition in the literature of the following century.

RUSSIAN FOLK SONG ABOUT THE SOUTH AFRICAN WAR AS AN EXPRESSION OF PUBLIC DISCONTENT OF THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

The folk song “Transvaal, Transvaal, My Country” emerged in the Russian Empire about 120 years ago. It happened in the wake of the extraordinary public interest in the first major armed conflict of the 20th century, the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902. The lyrics are based on a poem by a Saint-Petersburg poet, G. Galina. The song about the freedom struggle, which was waged by the people of a distant, but, like Russia, predominantly agrarian country, resonated with the early 20th-century Russian society. Its growing politicisation manifested itself in the keen interest that Russians took in the confrontation between two “peasant republics”, as Russian publicists termed them, and an empire, which had a strong army and a desire for expansion in the interests of its capital. The Russian song about a foreign war in Southern Africa became entrenched in Russian folklore and in Russian popular culture in general. A reason for the popularity of “Transvaal” in the Russian Empire was that the song enabled expressions of hope for social and political change in a form that was safe for the singer and his listeners under a repressive regime. The emergence and growing popularity of “Transvaal” coincided with the prevalence of protest sentiments in Russian society, among urban and rural residents, in the 1900s- 1910s. The song changed its meaning over the years. Sympathy for the Boers who fought against the British Empire was gradually replaced by sympathy for one’s compatriots. The Russian folk song, inspired by the events in South Africa, prompted people in the Russian Empire to reflect on their own living conditions and the future of their homeland.

ОЧЕРК О «КОРЕННЫХ ПРЕОБРАЗОВАНИЯХ» В ФИНАНСОВОЙ ПОЛИТИКЕ ЦАРСКОГО ПРАВИТЕЛЬСТВА И ПОПЫТКЕ СОЗДАНИЯ В РОССИИ ЦЕНТРОБАНКА В ГОДЫ ПЕРВОЙ МИРОВОЙ ВОЙНЫ

The paper, in the context of the Stolypin agrarian reform, examines the issue of appointing P.L. Bark Minister of Finance. The most important reason for the influential statesman, president of land management and agriculture A.V. Krivoshein, who was directly responsible for the implementation of agrarian policy, to promote P.L. Bark in every possible way was his desire to expand lending to the agricultural sector of the economy. At the same time, it is seen that the relationship between these state dignitaries could have hidden personal selfish motives. It is shown that the leaders of the world banking community of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, represented primarily by the Rothschild clan, paid commissions to representatives of the tsarist government when issuing loans to Russia. The authors do not exclude that similar practices took place during the First World War. The country's debt dependence on world bankers increased significantly, thanks to the “radical changes” of financial policy undertaken by P.L. Bark as Minister of Finance and supported by Nicholas II. Prohibition, which was implemented by P.L. Bark became one of the reasons for the emergence and significant increase in the state budget deficit. At the beginning of the 20th century Russia was the only one of the most developed countries in the world where there was no full-fledged Central Bank, as a formally national institution, but actually acting as a “bank of banks”, a conductor of the interests of bankers in monetary policy. This was one of the reasons for the emergence of the P.L. Bark’s project to transform the State Bank into the Central Bank. The revolution of 1917 prevented the implementation of this plan and the inclusion of Russia in the system of central banks of the world.

Figures “Representing the Kingdoms, Grand Principalities, and Other Regions and Provinces of the Russian Empire, with Their Coats Of Arms”: Personifications of Territories in 18th-century Russian Art

Personifications of territories are a part of rich allegorical language of the Baroque, which entered Russian art in the XVIII century. The personification of Russia attracted attention of researchers, but personifications of the territories of the Russian Empire has been so far largely ignored. In the paper allegorical figures of the territories of the Russian Empire are examined on the material of various kinds of art and with the use of information from printed publications (Honoré Lacombe de Prézel’s "Dictionnaire iconologique, ou introduction à la connoissance des peintures, sculptures, médailles, estampes...", descriptions of court celebrations). Personifications embody both administrative units (cities, fortresses, and viceroyalties) and historical ones, namely the Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian, and Moscow kingdoms. The latter had the highest status and were of the greatest importance. The article offers analysis of iconography of the personifications of the territories of the Russian Empire, which in most of the cases was a variation of the iconography of the personification of Russia. The main distinguishing feature of such figures was their coat of arms. Unlike personification of the Russian Empire, which always appeared in chaste attire, personifications of territories could be represented semi-naked. Attributes of power, i.e. crowns and royal robes, belonged only to the most significant of them, namely personifications of kingdoms or viceroyalties. Personifications of the kingdoms appeared in works in honour of the events that were paramount for the Russian Empire. Other personifications of territories (historical regions, cities, fortresses) usually appeared in art on the occasion of an addition of territory or in utilitarian objects (maps).

Centring animal experience through comics-based research: The case of Pavlov’s dogs

The focus of this article is the collaborative creation of Pavlov and the Kingdom of Dogs, a graphic nonfiction novel aimed at highlighting the lives of dogs experimented upon by Ivan Pavlov in late 19th and early 20th-century Russia. The novel delves into the intricate human-canine relationships within the context of St. Petersburg’s scientific, cultural, and political landscape. The collaboration between a researcher, a professional illustrator, and a script editor aimed to challenge anthropocentric narratives prevalent in historical representations of Pavlov and experimental science. Rooted in animal studies and psychology, this project explores the potential of arts-based methods to centre animals and their relationships within historical contexts. It aims to deepen depictions of animal experiences and agency while bridging the gap between human-animal studies and psychology, where attention to animal lives in research settings remains limited. By focusing on Pavlov’s experiments, the project seeks to redefine experimental animals as active historical subjects, contributing to broader discussions on human-animal relationships and ethical responsibilities. The article delineates the theoretical and methodological underpinnings of the graphic novel, provides insights into the comics-based research process, and discusses the affordances and challenges of this approach. It concludes by reflecting on the potential of comics-based research to engage both academic and public audiences, ultimately advocating for a deeper understanding of human-animal entanglements and their implications in contemporary society.

‘Armenianness’ in Indirect Translation of Byron’s The Prisoner of Chillon by Hovhannes Toumanian

This paper explores the Armenian translation of Lord Byron’s the Prisoner of Chillon by All-Armenian Poet Hovhannes Toumanian with Russian serving as an intermediary language. This research is captivating and rather responsible insomuch as it deals with the literary creations of three most eminent poets of the 19th century – Lord Byron, Vasily Zhukovsky and Hovhannes Toumanian. It is fascinating how poetry has united those three literary figures from culturally different geographical locations and how translation has disunited them. It comes as no surprise that Byron’s fine lyricism could be properly understood and passed on to target readers with such delicacy, nuance, and finesse only by Zhukovsky and Toumanian. The fact that Zhukovsky translated Byron is quite logical since the 19th century Russian literature was greatly influenced by Western literature, especially by Lord Byron. Yet, how come that a poet born and raised in a far-off mountainous region of Armenia with little to no knowledge of English decided to translate one of the masterpieces of a genius poet of “Foggy Albion”? There is one answer: the power of poetry…the power of translation! It is Zhukovsky’s translation that inspired Toumanian to take on the challenging and responsible task of translating the Prisoner of Chillon. It should be underlined that the cultural differences could not but be reflected in the Russian and Armenian translated versions. The primary purpose of my research is to shed light on some of the transformations Byron’s poem has undergone in the two-level translation process with a focus on elements of ‘Armenianness’ discernable in Toumanian’s translation.

“Four Parts of the World: Asia on an Elephant, Europa on a Bull, Africa on a Lion, America on a Crocodile, on Their Usual Signs”: Personifications of Four Continents in 18th-century Russian Art

Since the end of the 17th century, personifications of the four parts of the world, or four continents (Europe, Asia, Africa, and America), have appeared in Russian art, along with many elements of the Western European allegorical vocabulary. These allegorical figures in some works of art attracted the attention of researchers, but their iconography has not yet been elaborately analyzed. The present article summarizes information about personifications of the four parts of the world in 18th-century Russian art. Their iconography is examined in Western European context and in comparison with their descriptions in iconological lexicons (e.g., Honoré Lacombe de Prézel’s "Dictionnaire iconologique, ou introduction à la connoissance des peintures, sculptures, médailles, estampes...") and literature. The iconography of the personifications of the four parts of the world, borrowed from European art, varied from case to case, following different patterns, but remained recognizable. Allegorical figures could be accompanied by various symbolic animals. Sometimes parts of the world could be depicted as children, also in accordance with one of the variations of European iconography. The appearance of allegorical figures of the four continents in panegyric art served to the purpose of glorifying the Russian Empire and its ruler. By pointing to the universality of their meaning, these allegorical figures helped to exalt the imperial nature of power. In addition to the examples of personifications of the four parts of the world in 18th-century Russian art which were already analyzed, the article adds works of art that had not previously attracted attention in connection with this topic, including images of not-preserved decorations of court celebrations, as well as alternative embodiments of universal meaning (such as images of the winds).

Manufacturers, Printers and Booksellers in the 1872–1918 Records of F. M. and A. G. Dostoevsky

Abstract The Dostoevsky couple’s book trade is a separate, vast topic that has recently attracted increasingly greater attention of researchers. Starting in 1872 — the period of preparation of the novel “Demons” (1873) for publication — the Dostoevskys dealt with various publishers, printers, manufacturers and booksellers. The article is based on the 1872–1881 notebooks of F. M. Dostoevsky and the 1876–1918 notebooks of A. G. Dostoevskaya, as well as on scientific literature on publishing and book trade of 19th-century Russia, expanded comments and biographical references to such representatives of the book business as the Vargunin brothers and separately father and son Alexander Ivanovich and Konstantin Alexandrovich Vargunin; the Glazunov brothers and separately Alexander Ilyich and Ivan Ilyich Glazunov. The last representatives of the Glazunov publishing clan, Konstantin Ilyich and Ilya Ivanovich Glazunov, with whom, judging by the notebooks, A. G. Dostoevskaya interacted after the writer’s death, are being discussed for the first time. The article expanded the comment on the surname “Mamontov.” In the research literature on Dostoevsky, the emphasis is placed either exclusively on the writer’s relationship with Nikolai Ivanovich Mamontov, or with Anatoly Ivanovich Mamontov. Based on the notebooks of A. G. Dostoevskaya of 1876–1881, the article demonstrates that the Dostoevskys communicated with both representatives of the Mamontov family at that time. It is also suggested that in the late receipts issued by A. G. Dostoevskaya to a subscriber of the bookstore of a certain N. G. Mamontov, most likely refer to the bookseller N. G. Martynov. A. G. Dostoevskaya’s notebooks of the period after Dostoevsky’s death shows that the widow continued to cooperate with many publishers, booksellers and manufacturers after her husband’s death.