5th Century BCE Research Articles

An experience of the experimental use-wear analysis of made of tools pottery shards (based on the materials of the fortified settlement of Marai 4)

The paper concerns the determination of the functional purpose of scraper-shaped pottery tools of the forti-fied settlement of Marai 4 of the initial period of the Early Bronze Age. The site is located in the territory of the Lower Ishim River basin in Kazan District of Tyumen Oblast. Its materials are dated to the 6th (7th) — end of the 5th centuries BCE; culture-wise, they belong to the circle of the Zhuravlevo antiquities. The collection of the pot-tery scrapers of the site amounts to 78 items. Initially, the majority of them were interpreted as scrapers for fle-shing. However, a series of features gave rise to doubts, and the problem of the functional purpose of the scraper-like implements from Maray 4 remained open. In order to elaborate and correct the conclusions, in 2019–2022 the author conducted experiments on the use of pottery shards in the process of skin treatment, wood scraping, abrasive treatment of copper and bronze, in pottery making — at the stage of smoothing, compacting and sleeking the walls of pottery containers. The purpose of this paper is to present the results of the experimen-tal use-wear study of the scraper-like pottery artefacts from the Early Iron Age sites of Maray 4. The investigation is based upon the use of the experimental use-wear method, which involves the study of the traces of wear on the surface of implements, and their functional attribution. The use-wear analysis and microphotography of the traces of wear were carried out with the aid of a pancratic microscope MC-2 Z00M with a magnification from 10× to 40× with a Canon EOS-1100 camera. The performed studies allowed refining the previously conjectured hypothesis on the functional purpose of the scraper-shaped tools from Maray 4 and reaching the conclusion that most of them were used for smoothing and compacting the surface of pottery vessels. This conclusion is supported by the preliminary view of V.V. Ilyushina based upon the comparison of available reference experimental samples of surface treatment of clay vessels with pottery tools with the vessels from the site.

Maritime Trade Pattern and Early Urbanism in the Jaffna Peninsula of Northern Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka has played a key role in maritime trade on a global scale since Early Historic times to the colonial period. Archaeological evidence from harbors and ports of the Jaffna peninsula in northern Sri Lanka indicate very early trade connections with China to the east, Rome and Arabia to the west, and with India to the north. Ceramics and other artifacts associated with diverse cultures discovered from excavations and surveys in the Jaffna peninsula show that Jaffna has played a prominent role in Indian Ocean trade. Early urbanism and the emergence of trade related settlements in the Jaffna peninsula with the city of Kantharodai as a focal point had begun in the 6th century BCE. International trade and commerce of the Indian Ocean region had a direct impact on the development of urbanism in Kantharodai in the Jaffna peninsula, while the ports and trade network in the hinterland provide useful insights into the nature of economic activities and urbanism in the region. Finds from several key ports in the Jaffna peninsula and particularly the port on the island of Kayts indicate international trade. The city of Kantharodai as a focus for change, the city as the focus of power and domination, and the city as an organizing principle or creator of efficient space use are aspects explored in this paper.

Вопрос о становлении классической традиции иранской музыки в аспекте проблемы языка и мышления

The article examines the historical prerequisites for the formation of the classical tradition of Iranian music of the Achaemenid and Sassanid dynasties period (6th century BCE — the first third of the 7th century CE) in a linguistic environment with the dominant function of the Aramaic language (Old Aramaic, Imperial Koine, Syriac/ New Aramaic dialects) at the sites of the “royal way”, where the local musical heritage of Indo-Iranian tribes melted in the phonosphere of the cosmopolitan palace vocal and instrumental music-making of ancient civilizations. The author of the article formulates the hypothesis that (1) when working with the concepts “Indo-European language family” or “Semitic language family”, we describe the contrasting mechanisms of speech information processing and transmission that (2) appear universal for different spheres of intellectual activity, including music, where they (3) are expressed in two formulae of the musical process I -- m -- t (B. Asafyev) and I -- t = m—temporalityy (G. Shamilli) (3) that is sensitive to certain patterns of thinking and (4) is fixed in the gestalt. Therefore, to think of derivation mechanisms of verbal and musical speech as unified means to provide a gestalt morphosyntactic description of structures from an interdisciplinary perspective, relying on (1) the fact of the linguistic community of cultures over a long historical period and (2) the assumption about the ability of the oral musical tradition to retain one gestalt or another with a change of the language domain.

Notas sobre Neemias e a ideia de “tributação excessiva” na Yehud persa

Abstract This article aims at providing a brief overview of the historiographic writings on Achaemenid taxation, showing how the thesis of overtaxation influenced our understanding of Neh. 5 and Persian Yehud in the 5th century BCE. It describes how it was once widely accepted that overtaxation led to social and economic instability in many peripheral areas of the Achaemenid Empire, including Yehud. According to traditional scholarship, the narrative of Neh. 5 described how the local governor acted to mitigate this crisis by granting temporary tax and debt relief to small farmers. The author then moves to discuss how recent scholars questioned that long-established view, highlighting the biblical source’s rhetorical nature and the logical inconsistencies of the economic explanations used to describe this putative crisis. Finally, this article faces the question of a supposed economic calamity arising in Yehud under Persian hegemony and provides some clues to reevaluate the biblical narrative, particularly in light of recent studies concerning the Persian Empire’s economy and taxation. It supports to some extent the reading of Neh. 5 in an Achaemenid historical context.

Some notes on the meaning of min 民 (and zhong 眾) in the Tsinghua manuscript *Yin gao 尹誥 (The Announcement of Yin)

Abstract This article addresses the phenomenon that in the *Yin gao尹誥 (The Announcement of Yin), a pre-imperial Chu manuscript of the 4th century BCE published by Tsinghua University, the words min 民 and zhong 眾 appear to refer to two different groups of people. After reviewing the textual evidence and previous hypotheses on this topic, the author draws attention to the fact that while zhong and min are attributed to geographically distinct regions, they nevertheless seem to be related to each other. The author notes that a similar (though not identical) relationship exists between the zhong and min in the “Pan geng” 盤庚 chapter of the Shangshu 尚書 (Book of Documents) and certain passages of the Chunqiu Zuozhuan 春秋左傳 (Zuo commentary of the Spring and Autumn Annals), where the zhong appear to act as delegates of the min, conveying the ruler’s commands to the min and, in turn, communicating the min’s concerns back to the ruler.

A Bull Statue with Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscription (MARAŞ 16) in Kahramanmaraş Museum and the Chronology of the Late Hittite Kingdom of Gurgum

In this article, an edition of an unpublished inscription (MARAŞ 16) on a basalt bull statue of the 8th century BCE from Maraş is presented. Unlike the two rulers by the name of Larama known in Gurgum history, the author of the inscription is a third Larama, son of Hunita. The implications of this new datum for the chronology of the Gurgum dynasty are briefly discussed as well.

Paleogeographic and historical aspects of the ancient polis functioning on the example of the study of the «Orient» section of the Olbian necropolis

Paleogeographic and historical aspects of the ancient polis functioning on the example of the study of the «Orient» section of the Olbian necropolis

Same place, changing patterns? Animal economy at Gabii (Latium, central Italy) from the Early Iron Age through the Imperial period

Large-scale excavations at Gabii, located approximately 18 km east of Rome, began in 2009 under the direction of Professor Nicola Terrenato (University of Michigan) and yielded a huge faunal assemblage spanning from the Iron Age to the Medieval period. The focus of this paper is the comparison of zooarchaeological material from deposits dating to the Iron Age through Archaic Period (8th–6th centuries BCE) and the Republican period (mainly 3rd–1st centuries BCE), with some preliminary data on the Imperial phase. This work examines variations in animal production, distribution, and consumption over time in the same settlement, as well as changes in urbanism, built environment, and the available faunal resources. Zooarchaeological data from Gabii provide detailed information for how animal procurement, rearing, and supply evolved alongside a changing city that increasingly interacted with Rome. Species range, herd composition, management strategies, production of secondary products, breeding improvements, and trade and mobility are all characteristics of the faunal assemblage that reflect society more broadly. Relating these characteristics to the economy and urbanism in Western central Italy, the zooarchaeological remains show that animal production and supply mirrored larger social and economic trends in the evolving city.

From Joseph to Aṅgulimāla

From the late 4th century BCE, the Greeks initiated long-term cultural exchange between the Indian and Mediterranean worlds. Following the Greek conquests of North-West India and Central Asia, Buddhism spread to these regions. Here Buddhists, native and immigrant alike, came into prolonged contact with Western civilizations. The Bible in Greek or Syriac translation may have been available in North-West India and Central Asia in the early centuries CE or before the Common Era. Cumulative evidence also indicates that there were Christians and Jews in these regions during this period. They lived side by side with Buddhists for generations. Presumably under such circumstances, biblical elements found their way, perhaps indirectly, into Buddhist literature. A notable example is one version of the Aṅgulimāla Sutta, T118. The episode of Aṅgulimāla’s encounter with his teacher’s wife was probably adapted from Joseph’s encounter with Potiphar’s wife in Genesis 39. In this article, I show that the similarities between the Joseph story and the Aṅgulimāla story greatly surpass those between the Joseph/Aṅgulimāla stories and their counterparts in other literature, including six Greek tales, an Indian epic, two Jātakas and the Divyāvadāna of Buddhism.

A Factory of Magnificence: Themistius, Thucydides, and Constantinople

In Themistius’orations there are many clear and direct references to the Greek literature of the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. However, there are also more subtle references to these classical texts. In this paper, two references to classical Greek historiography are identified in Themistius’Oration 18. As we shall see, in order to praise the refashioning of Constantinople by Theodosius the Great, Themistius subtly quoted a passage by Xenophon. In order to highlight the splendour of the city of Constantinople, he also used as a reference one of the most eminent classical encomia of cities, that is, Pericles’funeral oration from the second book of Thucydides’ History. Both references served to enhance Themistius’already good relations with Theodosius I, who had recently renovated Constantinople with new monuments. This research thus stresses the relevance of quotations in Themistius’orations when studying his political agenda, including quotations that are less obvious and less easily identifiable.

Tracing the Optimal Level of Political and Social Change under Risks and Uncertainties: Some Lessons from Ancient Sparta and Athens

The present paper is inspired by the notions of “financial risk” and “financial uncertainties” and transfers their basic reasoning to social science analysis; that is, it develops a theoretical analysis in order to explain social and political change. We know that the degree of social and political change depends on the set of established institutions in a society. Societies can face two extremes: volatility, e.g., rapid changes that lead to instability, which increases the risk of a system or regime collapsing, or rigidity, which does not permit necessary adaptation and change and thus may again increase the risk of the regime collapsing. Thus, an optimal (or ideal) point of change is between the two extremes, permitting change that is neither too sudden and fast nor too slow and inflexible. To illustrate this, we analyze two cases from ancient Greece: Sparta, as a society and state with too many institutional checks and balances that led to rigidity and collapse, and Athens, which in the 5th century BCE had an institutional setting with very limited checks and balances, which again led to near collapse until the late 5th century BCE, when new institutions that were related to some efficient checks and balances were introduced that enabled the state to survive in a world of changing circumstances and balances of power.

The production of western Greek amphorae in Agrigento (Southern Sicily): An archaeometric and archaeological characterisation of the late 6th-4th centuries BCE series

This paper aims at an interdisciplinary, archaeological and archaeometric characterisation of the western Greek amphorae series produced in late Archaic and Classical-period Agrigento (southern Sicily). The research is based on a macroscopic examination, according to the standardised methods of Fabrics of the Central Mediterranean (FACEM), combined with petrographic analyses of 21 amphorae samples of presumed local fabric found in Agrigento itself. These were found in the artisanal area outside Porta V, in the excavations South of the temple of Zeus, and in several Sicilian consumption sites. Furthermore, a selection of 12 coarse ware samples and three tiles, all of supposed local manufacture and unearthed in Agrigento, has been investigated. For comparison, 12 raw clays sampled in the gullies between the Tempio di Giunone and the Tempio della Concordia have been included in this study and are complimented by chemical analyses (ICP-MS and ICP/OES) undertaken on a group of 19 ceramic samples and seven raw materials. As a result, our study confirms the local manufacture of the entire selection of 36 ceramic samples and the more than acceptable petrographic and chemical homogeneity of the ceramic pastes produced with locally sourced clays. The identification of a production of western Greek wine (?) amphorae in Agrigento dating from the late 6th-4th century BCE breaks ground for a better understanding of the colony’s economic development during the late Archaic and Classical periods. The city has to be regarded, in fact, as one of the major global players within the wider frame of Sicilian commercial interaction, especially during the 5th century BCE.

History of measles

Measles is a highly contagious viral disease transmitted by aerosols through human-to-human contact. It is often considered as a benign disease, although mortality remains high in developing countries (>5%). Frequent complications (diarrhea, otitis, pneumonia, encephalitis) can be observed. The disease mainly affects young children from 5 to 6 months of age with a mortality peak in the first three years of life. The Persian physician Rhazes gave the first clinical description of the disease in the 10th century, clearly differentiating it from smallpox. Measles spread worldwide from the Renaissance. Its epidemiology was remarkably studied in 1846 by a Danish physician, Peter Panum, during an epidemic in the Faroe Islands. The viral nature of this disease was demonstrated in 1911 and the virus was identified in 1954 by Thomas Peebles and John Enders. It is a morbillivirus (family Paramyxoviridae), also responsible for rinderpest (ovine, bovine), distemper (canine, feline), and epidemic diseases of dolphins, porpoises and seals. The current measles virus appeared recently from the rinderpest virus around the 6th century BCE. It has adapted perfectly to the human species, becoming strictly human, without animal reservoirs. A live attenuated vaccine was developed in 1958 by Enders' team after numerous passages in cell cultures. The vaccine was licensed in the United States in 1963 and is used on a large scale by the WHO throughout the world. This highly effective and well-tolerated vaccine has greatly reduced the number of measles cases and saved millions of lives. Measles remains a major public health concern, causing over 100,000 deaths per year worldwide. Today, the most affected continents remain Africa, South America and Asia.

Wpływ nauki starożytnej Grecji na rozwój logiki

The role of logic in everyday life is of incredibly significant importance. Since ancient times, great thinkers such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno of Elea have shown an interest in it. The present state of logic is the result of a prolonged process of evolution. The ancient Greek times played a pivotal and immensely foundational role in shaping it. From the 6th to the 4th century BCE, the foundations of logical thinking were born, which had a far-reaching impact on the later development of this field. The aim of this article is to present the significant influence of ancient Greek philosophy on the development of the science of logic. Due to the extensive thematic scope, the author has selected key issues that, in her opinion, had the most impact on the development of this science. This work delves into essential elements such as Socrates' methods, syllogism, and the reductio ad absurdum strategy, all of which lead to a deeper understanding of the fundamentals of logic.

An Overview of Military Confrontations between of the Assyrian Army against the Medes in the 7th centuries BCE

The article discusses the military confrontation between Neo-Assyrian kingdom and the Median polities in the 7th century BCE. At the beginning the outline of the history of wars between the Medes and Assyria from the 9th century onwards is presented which is followed by the brief description of the Assyrian forces of the era and detailed examination of the events until the fall of the Neo-Assyrian empire. In conclusions an attempt to reconstruct possible principles of the Median warfare was made.

Management Lessons from the Epics of Hindu Mythology: A Case on the Mahabharat

One of the oldest and most famous epics of Hindu mythology ever written is the Mahabharata. It centers on the complex feelings and familial ties that led to the conflict between the Kauravas and Pandavas over who would rule Hastinapur. It is the world's longest epic poem, with 100,000 lines, and it was written in the 4th century BCE or earlier, which is astounding and says a lot about this epic. The epic is also rich in moral and ethical lessons that may encourage and instruct today's kids to pursue their goals in a morally upright manner. Numerous occurrences in the epic have the potential to improve and enrich how individuals and organisations operate. We hope to share some strategic stories and happenings with you through this post so you can go up the success and prosperity ladder in your own life.

Hepatoprotective activity of Amalakyadi Gana, a polyherbal ayurvedic formulation in paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity in mice

Since ancient times, Amalakyadi Gana, a polyherbal formulation of Susruta Samhita (6th century BCE), has been used for the prevention and treatment of numerous gastrointestinal diseases. This formulation consists of fruits of Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia chebula, Piper longum, and the root of Plumbago zeylanica. The hepatoprotective efficacy of this formulation was evaluated following the acute toxicity study in mice to validate its ayurvedic uses. The hepatoprotective efficacy was assessed using paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity in Swiss albino mice. Research drug exhibited in normalizing the PCM-dependent rise of serum liver function markers. After administration of the aqueous extract of Amalakyadi Gana, relevant blood biochemical measures showed significant (P < 0.05) hepatoprotective activity in a dosage-dependent manner, especially at the dose of 700 mg/kg orally in mice. When compared to the control group, significant (p < 0.05) histological alterations were also observed in the liver tissues. This formulation exhibited results in normalizing the liver architecture by decreasing necrotic foci along with the normal liver parenchymal structure in the research drug pre-treated groups mainly at the dose of 700 mg/kg, caused due to paracetamol toxicity. The research drug's sustained activity was comparable to that of the silymarin (200 mg/kg, p.o.) reference medicine. This formulation possesses significant hepatoprotective activity without any toxicity in mice.

The History of Computing in Iran (Persia)—Since the Achaemenid Empire

Persia was the early name for the territory that is currently recognized as Iran. Iran’s proud history starts with the Achaemenid Empire, which began in the 6th century BCE (c. 550). The Iranians provided numerous innovative ideas in breakthroughs and technologies that are often taken for granted today or whose origins are mostly unknown from the Achaemenid Empire’s early days. To recognize the history of computing systems in Iran, we must pay attention to everything that can perform computing. Because of Iran’s historical position in the ancient ages, studying the history of computing in this country is an exciting subject. The history of computing in Iran started very far from the digital systems of the 20th millennium. The Achaemenid Empire can be mentioned as the first recorded sign of using computing systems in Persia. The history of computing in Iran started with the invention of mathematical theories and methods for performing simple calculations. This paper also attempts to shed light on Persia’s computing heritage elements, dating back to 550 BC. We look at both the ancient and current periods of computing. In the ancient section, we will go through the history of computing in the Achaemenid Empire, followed by a description of the tools used for calculations. Additionally, the transition to the Internet era, the formation of a computer-related educational system, the evolution of data networks, the growth of the software and hardware industry, cloud computing, and the Internet of Things (IoT) are all discussed in the modern section. We highlighted the findings in each period that involve vital sparks of computing evolution, such as the gradual growth of computing in Persia from its early stages to the present. The findings indicate that the development of computing and related technologies has been rapidly accelerating recently.

Staying local: Community formation and resilience in Archaic Southern Sicily

In the 7th and 6th centuries BCE, Sicily saw migratory movements to and on the island, new power relations, and intercultural interconnections. In this environment, new communities emerged, existing communities were reconfigured and both were challenged to negotiate their lifeworlds. Drawing on concepts of community, locality and resilience, this paper examines how local communities in southern Sicily formed, consolidated their cohesion and demonstrated resilience, by taking a closer look at two sites and their burial grounds. Castiglione di Ragusa was located in a culturally diverse microregion, and yet the community maintained a steady consistency in burial practices and assemblages, while the community of Butera merged vessel depositions, cremations and differential body treatment in unique funerary conventions. The paper concludes that both communities mobilised social practices, material culture and cultural knowledge to create localised differences and built on these differences to forge and maintain a sense of belonging and boundedness.

Esteeming goods for non‐accumulation, small realms with few people: Interpreting kula with Laozi

AbstractThis article interprets the kula system through the lens of the Laozi, a Chinese classic of the 6th century BCE. Laozi's ideas regarding “esteeming goods,” “non‐accumulation,” and “small realms with few people” allow us to understand why kula shells and names are precious but impossible to accumulate and how kula serves to keep societies small and peaceful with its subtle practice of organizations, technologies, and calendars. Through exemplary “elders” who esteem goods hard to accumulate, the kula operates as a void system close to the spontaneous order idealized by Laozi, who promoted the ideal of the non‐accumulative Sage. Epistemologically, the article continues the anthropological tradition of perspectivist comparison by proposing a Sinic interpretation, a version of multi‐universalism that does not intend to invalidate the existing universalism but seeks to transcend the view of a singular western universalism and multiple non‐Western exceptionalisms.