The existence of visible and dark matter, and the continued direct undetectability of dark matter, necessitates a theoretical investigation into the nature of inertial mass that constitutes visible and dark matter. It is proposed that inertial mass is manifested dually: materially, as extrinsic inertial mass and immaterially, as intrinsic inertial mass. Visible matter experiences inertia when accelerated because the applied real force on the material extrinsic manifestation of inertial mass is not cancelled by the equal and opposite inertial pseudo force on the immaterial intrinsic manifestation of inertial mass. It is also proposed that all visible matter experience inertia all the time in cosmological acceleration, because spacetime real force on extrinsic inertial mass is not cancelled by the inertial pseudo force on intrinsic inertial mass. Visible matter in gravitational freefall does not experiencing inertia because inertial pseudo force associated with intrinsic inertial mass is cancelled by the pseudo-like gravitational force associated with gravitational mass. Immaterial intrinsic inertial mass also exists independently as intrinsic inertial mass objects, which are in cosmological freefall and do not experience inertia, because of cancellation between spacetime pseudo-like force and inertial pseudo force on intrinsic inertial mass. Immaterial intrinsic inertial mass objects in cosmological freefall are the dark matter in the universe.

A change in approach in the theory of Relativistic Electromagnetic Fields, introduced by James Clerk Maxwell in 1865 and the theory of “Electric-Magnetic / Space-Time” conversions by Einstein-Lorentz-Minkovski in 1905 in the theory of Special Relativity (specially described by the Lorentz-Transformations) and the Theory of General Relativity (GTR) by Albert Einstein in 1915 has been presented in this article. What is known in Astrophysics has originally been based on the fundamental knowledge of the classical Electromagnetic theories of James Clerk Maxwell and the famous Theory of General Relativity by Albert Einstein. Electromagnetic radiation and in specific light has always been the carrier for this information. That is a fundamental problem. Because what do we really know about light? When James Maxwell published his famous set of 4 electromagnetic equations, the Maxwell equations, he did not built his theory on a logical fundament. His foundation was not logical at all. Why would a set of 4 electromagnetic equations which are correct at low frequencies describe a physical phenomenon like the propagation of light with a speed that at that time had never been measured before? Since then nobody ever doubted about the correctness of the theories of Maxwell. The success of his predictions made Maxwell famous. But fame is not a ground for fundamental science.

It is proposed that the accelerating expansion of the universe is due the cosmologicalization of the principle of equivalence - which recognizes momentary equivalence between gravitational force and inertial force - in an expanding spherical distribution of matter, wherein momentary equivalence occurs at a certain radial distance between gravitational force upon the gravitational mass and inertial force - generated by the accelerating frame of reference of spacetime - upon the inertial mass of an object on the surface of the sphere. The principle of equivalence also recognizes momentary equivalence between a freefalling gravitational mass and the impression of acceleration of an inertial mass in an inertial frame of reference with respect to an accelerating frame of reference. Since the acceleration of the inertial mass is impressional, it is conceivable therefore that the inertial mass of the object can be impressional as well. It is proposed that there are objects in nature which possess impressional inertial mass, and that such objects are the dark matter in the universe.

Binary pulsars demonstrate unusual gravitational behaviour that is a careful balance between the type of orbit, companion star and neutron star weights, and neutron star spin rate. Some binary pulsars are believed to have the same weight for both stars moving in a highly elliptical orbit while some binaries with vast weight differences, are in near-circular orbits. This is counterintuitive and may lie outside of the conventional wisdom. Each neutron star in these binary systems spins at different rates, implying that rotation per Winterberg’s conjecture may induce a repulsive gravitational source analogous to generating negative matter that can negate inertial effects. Moreover, swirling jets leaving black holes imply that these jets may move either at greater than light speed or also become a repulsive gravitational source. Interactions between the pulsar binary’s two bodies and behaviour of two of Jupiter’s moons may also validate notions from Jefimenko, who claims that gravity induces angular momentum. If true, these findings show that a significant relationship exists between gravity and angular momentum as well as suggest angular momentum may result in linear momentum after going through an intermediate step to produce repulsive gravitation. Furthermore, these capabilities may be the prerequisites to devise future star ship propulsion drives to explore the cosmos.

An information based model is used to reanalyze the Cosmic Background Radiation (CBR) measured by the Cosmic Background Explorer, COBE, NASA satellite. The advantages of this mathematical model are that a radiation scattering parameter and the temperature at the detector can be calculated. from the data. Three models, the simple Black Body Radiation (BBR) curve, a model by D. J. Fixsen<SUP>1</SUP> et al. and the Information Based Model (IBM) where compared to the measured data. The best X<SUP>2</SUP> fit was obtained for the IBM. For the monopole radiation one obtains a temperature of 2.72503 <SUP>o</SUP>K and a scattering parameter of zero. For the dipole radiation a temperature of 3.285843 <SUP>o</SUP>K and a scattering parameter r equal to 2.0705567 is obtained.

An inter-comparison of the first two harmonics has been made so as to understand the basic reason for the occurrence of cosmic ray anisotropies during the period 1989-2004 and 1991 – 2004 using the Neutron monitor data from and Haleakala Neutron Monitoring Stations. The annual average values of the first two (daily) harmonic amplitudes and phases for neutron monitor data due to the change in the annual average magnitudes of the sunspot number and Ap index. Significant positive correlations among diurnal amplitude of both stations with <i>Rz</i> and <i>Ap</i> index have been found. The largest amplitudes are observed during the declining phase of solar activity. The semi-diurnal amplitude for Kiel and Haleakala neutron monitor stations have been found negatively correlated with sunspot number and <i>Ap</i> index, while the semi-diurnal phase is positively correlated with sunspot number and <i>Ap </i>index.Examinations and analysis of simultaneous variations in cosmic ray anisotropies along with solar and geomagnetic disturbance index has lead us to identify possible mechanism in producing significant correlations.

In modern cosmology, the shape of the universe is flat. In between the closed space and flat space, there is one compromise. That is ‘Hubble volume’. Even though Hubble volume is virtual in the flat universe, by considering the product of critical mass density and the Hubble volume, one can estimate the Hubble mass. By coupling the Hubble mass with the Mach’s principle, one can understand the origin of cosmic, atomic and nuclear physical parameters. Thus the four fundamental interactions can be studied in a unified manner.

Within the expanding cosmic volu me, length can be considered as the gravitational or electro magnetic interaction range. Product of 'Hubble volu me' and 'cosmic crit ical density' can be called as the Hubble mass. The three key assumptions are: 1) within the volu me, each and every point in free space is influenced by the mass, 2) 'mo lar electron mass' can be considered as the rest mass of a new heavy charged elementary particle and 3) atomic grav itational constant seems to be Avogadro number times the classical gravitational constant. This is a new approach and may be given a chance in understanding the four fundamental cosmo logical interactions.

This paper analyzed theoretically the short period variability of the sunspot activity beginning from January 2010 till September 2010. Sunspot data are taken fro m Solar Influences Data Analysis Center (SIDC). We focused on the number of sunspots each month and correlate it with sunspot are aparameter. Fro m the analysis, it is found that there is a litt le correlation between the amplitude of a cycle. The pattern shown an almost linear relat ionship between both parameters. It also showed that the highest sunspot number per day that has been recorded is in May. The Sun was found to be most active in August and passive in April according to the nu mber o f sunspots. Uniquely, there is also no sunspot at all in a day. This study gives some interesting and potentially important clues especially in understanding the physical processes responsible for the solar activity and the solar cycle phenomena. Based on our analysis, we found that the average relation between sunspot number, R and sunspot area, A is A = 5.179R.