Yearbook of Morphology 1999 (review)

Statement of the problem. Our research is aimed at considering the problem of borrowing English words (anglicisms) in German. On the basis of modern German texts of different genres (slogans of firms and enterprises, speeches of public figures in the media, etc.), an attempt is made to analyze some of the problems dealing with distortions of the standard German language. Results. Over the centuries, as a result of political and economic changes in the German-speaking countries, the German language has been significantly influenced by other languages, and a large number of foreign words have entered its vocabulary. Today, in the lexical system of the German language, there is an excessive amount of English borrowings. Some linguists and vocabulary researchers classify and treat German as a recipient language. At present, there are cases when English words are used as a standard, and even the term Denglisch has appeared, i.e. combination of two languages (Deutsch+Englisch = German + English). The article deals with the problems of the phenomena of linguistic purism, analyzes the research of the German Linguistic Society (VDS), which opposes the excessive dominance of foreign words. Every year, the Society awards prizes for the creation of new words by mixing German and foreign languages, in particular English, and the peculiarities of their translation. We have identified the “words of the year” that influenced the German language in one way or another, and we also consider problems that have a negative impact on the standard German language. Conclusion. Due to the rapid development of new technologies and industries, the role of English as the language of international communication in German society is growing. The influence of the English language on the language situation in Germany has been observed for several centuries. In the 21st century, this process is not weakening, but on the contrary, it is expanding. As a result of the study, it is concluded that the English language certainly has an impact on the development of the German language, but does not violate its uniqueness and naturalness of the lexical system.

This guide accompanies the following article : ‘Noun Incorporation: Essentials and Extensions’ Language and Linguistics Compass 3 (2009): 1076–1096 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749‐818x.2009.00171.x Author’s Introduction Noun incorporation (NI) refers to a family of grammatical constructions that stand at the center of grammar, integrating morpho‐phonology and semantics, and crossing the lexical‐syntactic divide. It is thus an ideal topic of study, allowing extensions in all directions. In general, a NI structure is one in which a nominal that would canonically (either in the given language, or in languages in general) be expressed as an independent argument or adjunct is instead in some way incorporated into the verbal element of the sentence, forming part of the predicate. The construction raises many issues in empirical and theoretical grammar. At the heart of many of these issues is the question whether NI is a word formation rule or whether it interacts with syntax, manipulating sentential predicates. The study of NI thus raises questions as to whether there is a distinct word‐formation component. Empirically, languages exhibit myriad forms of NI, both morpho‐syntactically and semantically. In early work, morphology and syntax were the main areas of attention, in particular the role of polysynthesis and compounding in NI, but in recent years, the meanings of both the parts and the whole of incorporation complexes have taken center stage. In some languages, the predicate must denote a customary activity and the object is modificational, whereas in others, the process is fully productive and the incorporated nominal can be referential. Of further interest, there is a close relation between NI and other grammatical phenomena such as possessive, classificatory, complex predicate, and existential constructions, and through its study questions of nominal semantics, transitivity, discourse focus, and sentential aspect arise. The literature on NI is particularly discoursal, from its origins to the present day, which allows as well for close study of styles of linguistic analysis and argumentation. NI can thus be used as a springboard for discussion of many issues in current and historical linguistic theory. Author Recommends (in chronological order) Sapir, Edward. 1911. The problem of noun incorporation in American languages. American Anthropologist 13.250–82. A famous early paper on the topic, addressing the issue of whether NI is a word‐forming or predicate forming construction, thus laying the groundwork for a century of work on the topic. Mithun, Marianne. 1984. The evolution of noun incorporation. Language 60.847–95. Perhaps the most important paper on the topic, as it presents a thorough overview of all the types of NI across a wide range of languages, suggesting an implicational hierarchy between the different types. The paper takes a lexicalist approach to NI. Sadock, Jerrold M. 1986. Some notes on noun incorporation. Language 62.19–31. A heated reply to Mithun (1984), taking issue with the view of NI as lexical, which he argues is based on the wrong approach of setting aside some types of NI. Baker, Mark C. 1988. Incorporation: a theory of grammatical function changing (in particular, Chapter 3) . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. A highly influential work on the topic within Government and Binding theory, presenting a structural blueprint for dealing with a wide range of NI phenomena. Rosen, Sarah Thomas. 1989. Two types of noun incorporation: a lexical analysis. Language 65:2.294–317. An alternative to Baker (1988), which argues that NI should be treated as lexical process, rather than a syntactic one, and which presents an analysis along these lines. Baker, Mark C. 1996. The polysynthesis parameter (in particular, Chapter 7) . New York: Oxford University Press. A discussion of NI as found in polysynthetic languages, arguing that true NI is limited to such languages by a macro‐parameter. Gerdts, Donna B. 1998. Incorporation. In A. Spencer and A. Zwicky (eds). The handbook of morphology . Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 84–100. A useful overview of the NI literature up until 2001, with emphasis on the empirical range of phenomena. Massam, Diane. 2001. Pseudo noun incorporation in Niuean. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 19.153–97. An examination Niuean phrasal incorporation, opening the door to more abstract (or pseudo‐) incorporation. Van Geenhoven, Veerle. 2001. Noun incorporation. State of the article. Glot International Vol. 5:8.261–71. An overview of noun incorporation literature, with emphasis on semantic issues raised by the construction. Farkas, Donka, and Henriëtte de Swart. 2003. The semantics of incorporation: from argument structure to discourse transparency . Centre for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University. An in‐depth analysis of semantics and pragmatic aspects of incorporation. The introduction gives a good overview of the issues addressed in the book. Gerdts, Donna B. 2003. The morphosyntax of Halkomelem lexical suffixes. International Journal of American Linguistics 69.4.345–56. An examination of one type of obligatory incorporation in which the nominal cannot stand alone. Chung, Sandra, and William Ladusaw. 2004. Restriction and saturation . MIT Press. A study in the semantics of noun incorporation, arguing for a new type of predicate‐argument relation, termed Restrict. (In particular, Chapter 3) Dayal, Veneeta. 2007. Hindi pseudo incorporation . Ms. Rutgers University. http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/%7Edayal/Pincorp‐07.pdf A study of the semantics of Hindi noun incorporation, with a focus on the role of number and aspect. Johns, Alana. 2007. Restricting noun incorporation: root movement. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory

This paper focuses on verb classifiers in Israeli Sign Language (ISL). Classifiers in sign languages are morphemes consisting of particular hand configurations, which classify a group of nouns on the basis of a salient characteristic feature. This feature could be their size and shape, some semantic similarity, or the way in which they are being handled. Verb classifiers attach to verbal roots denoting motion and location, to form a complex verb expressing spatial relations as well as a class of possible referents of which these spatial relations obtain. Classifiers have been the focus of numerous studies in a variety of sign languages.1 Investigations of the phonology and semantics of classifiers have revealed that (a) despite their iconic nature, classifier systems of sign languages are discrete, grammatical and rule governed, and as such are part of the linguistic structure of the language; and (b) the semantic categories expressed by sign language classifiers are basically the same categories found in spoken languages (see Supalla 1982, 1986, and Mcdonald 1983).

The proposed article is dedicated to highlighting the concept of «taboo» and the reasons for its existence in the German language, from the ancient times to the present. The aim of this work is studying the adjective «link» (left) and its tabooing in the German language in the diachronic aspect. The object of research is the adjective «link» and its tabooing in the diachronic perspective of its formation and functioning in the German language. The subject of the study is the linguistic features of the adjective «link» and the means of its taboo in the German language from the ancient times to the present. Ancient and modern dictionaries by V. V. Levytskyi, K. Duden, R. Schützeichel, B. Hennig, G. Varig served as the research material. The work uses descriptive and comparative-historical research methods. As a result of the research, it was found that the adjective «link» (left) had a negative connotation in the German language for many centuries in most cases, therefore it was taboo and replaced by certain linguistic euphemisms. The obtained data on the appearance and development of this adjective are of certain importance for the study and teaching of «History of the German Language», «Introduction to German Philology», «Lexicology of the German Language» as well as a practical course of the German language.

The claim which I develop in this study, on the basis of diachronic evidence from derivational suffixes in Romanian and Spanish, is that derivational affixes constitute classical, ‘Saussurean’, signs comprising a one-to-one, arbitrary, matching of form and meaning. This finding seems to contradict well-known claims in recent morphological theory that all morphemes, including derivational affixes, are semantically vacuous. But the contradiction is a subtle one: for the suffixes reveal themselves to be signs whose signans is not ‘extramorphological’ (like ‘dog’, ‘dance’, ‘future’ or ‘plural’) but ‘intramorphological’, indicating the ‘derived’ status of the word-forms in which they occur.KeywordsPast ParticipleLexical MeaningSound ChangeHigh VowelStressed VowelThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Linking elements occur in compound nouns and derivatives in the Indo-European languages as well as in many other languages of the world. They can be described as sound material or graphemes with or without a phonetic correspondence appearing between two parts of a word-formation product. Linking elements are meaningless per definition. However, in many cases the clear-cut distinction between them and other, meaningful elements (like inflectional or derivational affixes) is difficult. Here, a thorough examination is necessary. Simple rules cannot describe the occurrence of linking elements. Instead, their distribution is fully erratic or at least complex, as different factors including the prosodic, morphological, or semantic properties of the word-formation components play a role and compete. The same holds for their productivity: their ability to appear in new word-formation products differs considerably and can range from strongly (prosodically, morphologically, or lexically) restricted to the virtual absence of any constraints. Linking elements should be distinguished from singular, isolated insertions (cf. Spanish rousseau-n-iano) or extensions of one specific stem or affix (cf. ‑l- in French congo-l-ais, togo-l-ais, English Congo-l-ese, Togo-l-ese). As they link two parts of a word formation, they also differ from word-final elements attached to compounds like ‑(s)I in Turkish as in ana‑dil‑i (mother‑tongue‑i) ‘mother tongue’. Furthermore, they are also distinct from infixes, i.e., derivational affixes that are inserted into a root, as well as from confixes, which are for bound, but meaningful (lexical) morphemes. Linking elements are attested in many Indo-European languages (Slavic, Romance, Germanic, Baltic languages, and Greek) as well as in other languages across the world. They seem to be more common in compounds than in derivatives. Additionally, some languages display different sets of linking elements in both compounds and derivatives. The linking inventories differ strongly even between closely related languages. For example, Frisian and Dutch, each of which has five different linking elements, share only two linking forms (‑s- and ‑e-). In some languages, linking elements are homophonous to other (meaningful) elements, e.g., inflectional or derivational suffixes. This is mostly due to their historical development and to the degree of the dissociation from their sources. This makes it sometimes difficult to distinguish between linking elements and meaningful elements. In such cases (e.g., in German or Icelandic), formal and functional differences should be taken into account. It is also possible that the homophony with the inflectional markers is incidental and not a remnant of a historical development. Generally, linking elements can have different historical sources: primary suffixes (e.g., Lithuanian), case markers (e.g., many Germanic languages), derivational suffixes (e.g., Greek), prepositions (e.g., Sardinian and English). However, the historical development of many linking elements in many languages still require further research. Depending on their distribution, linking elements can have different functions. Accordingly, the functions strongly differ from language to language. They can serve as compound markers (Greek), as “reopeners” of closed stems for further morphological processes (German), as markers of prosodically and/or morphologically complex first parts (many Germanic languages), as plural markers (Dutch and German), and as markers of genre (German).

This article is devoted to the diachronic modification of the cinematic vocabulary of the modern German language. The relevance of this study is determined by the insufficient study of the formation and development of German film lexicon in the XXI century, which contributes to new research on this issue in modern linguistics; as well as the need to study the process of formation and evolution of the German language film lexicon to identify linguistic and cultural features of this area of vocabulary.The purpose of the study is to determine the semantic features of the lexical units of the German language, representing the cinematic vocabulary in the framework of the historical development of the language. To achieve this research goal, the following tasks were set and solved: 1) the modern scientific linguistic literature has been studied and analyzed in order to form a theoretical basis for this research problem; 2) the semantic field of cinematography has been considered and the analysis of individual lexical units of German cinematography has been carried out and the modification of lexemes in the context of the historical development of the language in relation to modern trends has been described; 3) the nature of borrowing in the German language of film terms from other languages and the analysis of their structure is made. The article discusses the interpretation and definition of the semantic content of the German language film lexicon. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the fact that the grammatical and lexical modification of the German language film terminology based on the diachronic aspect is described for the first time in Russian linguistics, as well as the synchronic correlation of film vocabulary with modern trends is traced. As a result, it was revealed that the semantic group denoting the professions of performing skills in modern German is represented by the word composition of nouns, as a rule, one of which is a verbal noun. The German film language tends to use borrowed synonyms for the original word in communication, the vast majority of these borrowings came from Latin, French and English.

This volume brings together twelve empirical studies on ditransitive constructions in Germanic languages and their varieties, past and present. Specifically, the volume includes contributions on a wide variety of Germanic languages, including English, Dutch, and German, but also Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian, as well as lesser-studied ones such as Faroese. While the first part of the volume focuses on diachronic aspects, the second part showcases a variety of synchronic aspects relating to ditransitive patterns. Methodologically, the volume covers both experimental and corpus-based studies. Questions addressed by the papers in the volume are, among others, issues like the cross-linguistic pervasiveness and cognitive reality of factors involved in the choice between different ditransitive constructions, or differences and similarities in the diachronic development of ditransitives. The volume’s broad scope and comparative perspective offers comprehensive insights into well-known phenomena and furthers our understanding of variation across languages of the same family.

This article is devoted to the analysis of the ways of word formation of the cinematic vocabulary of the modern German language. The relevance of the research is determined by several factors: firstly, cinema is one of the most influential art forms in the modern world, occupying an important place in culture, forming national and global cultural norms, which leads to constant updating of the language, including the creation of new words and terms reflecting processes, phenomena and technologies related to Secondly, the German language, like other languages of the world, actively borrows lexical units from other languages and creates new words, adapting them to grammatical and phonetic norms. The purpose of the study is to identify the specifics of the ways of word formation in the cinematic terminological system of the German language. To achieve the set research goal, a number of key tasks were identified and successfully completed: 1) the main ways of word formation of specialized vocabulary used in the field of cinema are analyzed; 2) general patterns of word formation of cinematic vocabulary are revealed; 3) the data obtained are systematized and the main trends and productive ways of word formation in the cinematic terminological system of the German language are determined. In this study, attention is paid to the classification of word formation methods proposed by S. V. Grinev-Grinevich. The researcher identifies four main ways of word formation: semantic, morphological, syntactic and morphological-syntactic, which have a significant impact on the formation of terms in various fields, including in cinema. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that the analysis not only reveals the specificity and productivity of the corresponding methods of word formation, but also traces the dynamics of the development of film vocabulary in the German language. This is important for understanding how languages adapt to new realities and how terminology develops. The study revealed that in the process of word formation of the cinematic terminological system of the German language, preference is given to the semantic, morphological, morphological and syntactic method. They effectively contribute to the formation of a terminosphere that accurately reflects the evolutionary processes in the film industry. At the same time, the syntactic method, despite its more limited use, plays a key role in creating extensive structural expressions and specialized vocabulary, which provides film professionals with accurate tools to describe their technical and creative processes.

This article discusses the features of letters of recommendation: types, structure and criteria for evaluating work certificates. The relevance of the work lies in the fact that letters of recommendation have been around for a long time and are an integral part of the business sphere in Germany. Given the lack of workbooks in Germany, providing a letter of recommendation for consideration by a potential employer is a prerequisite. This speech genre requires detailed attention and consideration from the point of view of linguistic and structural features. The object of research is the speech genre "recommendation letter". The subject of the study are structural and substantive features, types of letters of recommendation. The purpose of the work is to consider the types and features of letters of recommendation in the German language in a diachronic aspect. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the fact that for the first time the types and linguistic characteristics of the German-language recommendation letter are studied from the standpoint of diachrony. The research material was a German website containing archives of old letters of recommendation: Arbeitszeugnis-forum.de.In the course of the study, it was found out that the most preferable is a qualified letter of recommendation containing a detailed description of the employee and opening him a wider range of further career opportunities. Qualified recommendation letters in German have the following features: 1) a letter of recommendation must comply with the principles of truth and benevolence, therefore it must be written positively; 2) a qualified letter contains information about the work performed, various qualities and achievements of the employee, about his behavior among colleagues and clients, as well as thanks and wishes for the future. The analysis of letters of recommendation showed that until 1900, there were mainly simple working certificates in use in Germany. The letter of recommendation did not have a clear structure. The qualified certificate has received great relevance and has been supplemented with characteristics, approximately, since the 1940s.

Language is a social phenomenon and changes with the development of society. Neologisms are new words and new expressions which are the cutting edge of language. Neologisms are being invented or introduced every day to express new things and new ideas in society. Scholars usually discuss neologisms from two perspectives: the time perspective and the semantic perspective. Neologisms can be classified according to their functions, their coinage processes, their formation, and their sources. There are three main methods of new word creation: neologisms by rules of word-formation; neologisms by adding new meanings to existing words; neologisms by borrowing words from other languages. Even a single method is quite productive in new word creation.

This study investigates the role of grammatical gender in the formation, differentiation, and stabilization of homonyms in the German language. Drawing on lexicographic sources, corpus data, and theoretical literature, the analysis demonstrates that gender functions as a key structural mechanism that enables phonologically identical nouns to maintain distinct meanings. Homonymous sets such as Band, See, and Teil show that gender provides essential morphological cues that prevent lexical merger and support semantic clarity. Diachronic evidence further reveals that gender often preserves distinctions between historically unrelated roots that have converged phonetically over time. In contemporary usage, gender agreement within noun phrases offers redundant syntactic signals that facilitate efficient disambiguation, aligning with psycholinguistic findings on gender-based lexical access. The results highlight the broader linguistic, cognitive, and pedagogical significance of gender as a central organizing principle within the German lexicon.

NOUN INCORPORATION IN GREENLANDIC: A CASE OF SYNTACTIC WORD FORMATION Jerrold M. Sadock University of Chicago In Greenlandic Eskimo, a polysynthetic language, the word-building apparatus performs much of the work that is accomplished by the syntax of more familiar languages. In particular, numerous processes in this language create verbs from nouns. Evidence of a quite unusual sort shows that these noun-incorporation processes must follow certain ordinary syntactic rules, such as case assignment and modifier-noun agreement. The language thus falsifies pronouncements concerning the independence of syntax and word formation based on data from languages that are typologically very different from Greenlandic* Certain aspects of the grammar of Greenlandic Eskimo shed light on the question of whether, and to what degree, universal grammar must allow for the possibility of syntactic processing before the words of surface structure exist as such. Phrased differently, the question is whether any word-formation rules are interspersed among the ordinary rules of the syntactic component. The extreme relevance of Greenlandic to this issue was recognized by Rischel 1971, 1972, but little notice appears to have been taken of his important work. Thus I wish to present further data and arguments in support of what is essentially the conclusion drawn by Rischel. 1. Theory. The dispute between the advocates of prelexical syntax, as it is often called, and those who favor presyntactic lexical insertion has been somewhat obscured because of the failure on the part of both sides to make their claims precise. It is not immediately obvious to what degree the formatives of deep * I wish to thank Wolfgang Dressier, Eric Hamp, Alexis Manaster-Ramer, James McCawley, Pamela Munro, and Geoff Pullum for helpful advice and criticism of earlier drafts of this paper. I am especially grateful to Anthony Woodbury for his perceptive and painstaking critiques, and to Jörgen Rischel, whose insights form the basis of this work and who prevented me from committing an unpardonable scholarly sin. Naturally, I remain responsible for any mistakes still present. Most of the data in this paper have been taken from Bugge et al. 1960, Kleinschmidt 1851, Rasmussen 1971, Rischel 1971, 1972, and Schultz-Lorentzen 1927. Some pedestrian and presumably non-crucial examples were made up in order to simplify the Greenlandic vocabulary used. 300 NOUN INCORPORATION IN GREENLANDIC301 structure are required to resemble the words ofsurface structure in a theory without prelexical syntax, nor is it obvious how much divergence is allowed in a theory with such syntax. The most severe restriction that could be placed on universal grammar would be the requirement that all word-sized constituents of surface syntax be represented in deep structure by constituents containing all and only the morphemes of the surface word—in their surface order, and in a form suitable for processing by purely phonological rules. In the weakest possible model, there would be no restrictions whatever as to the point in syntactic derivations where the integrity of surface words would have to be respected, and no limits at all as to the degree of difference between the form of surface words and their deep-structure sources. Neither of these extreme alternatives is particularly attractive. The problem with the very strict construal of the ban on prelexical syntax is that it would more or less spell doom for syntax itself; e.g., it would make Affix Hopping and Z)o-Support rules impossible, and would remove rules of concord from the syntactic component. Since reflexive pronouns in English are clearly words, they would have to appear as such in deep structure. With no agreement rules or Reflexivization, numerous other rules of classical syntax (such as Passive) would also go by the board. And since Passive is the cornerstone of classical syntax, all the rules that depend on it for their justification would also be eliminated. In other words, there would be virtually no syntax in a theory that totally outlawed prelexical syntax. In fact, virtually syntax-free theories of grammar have become moderately popular lately; but they are motivated in part by the fact that they are consistent with a very strict adherence to the lexicalist doctrine—a doctrine which the data from Greenlandic seem to call into...

The article is devoted to the study of linguistic representation of the concept BERLIN WALL in modern German. The main goal of the article is to identify and describe eonyms (key words of the epoch) that preserve the historical memory of the Berlin Wall in modern German. The material of the study was eonyms selected from the rating lists of the linguistic action of the German Language Society (Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache e. V.) «Word of the Year» for the period from 1978 to 2020, verbalizing the concept BERLIN WALL. The application of comparative-historical and descriptive methods made it possible to identify eonyms representing the result of linguistic reflection of the most important political phenomenon in modern German history. The article provides a linguocultural analysis of the selected eonyms in synchronic and diachronic aspects. The author describes the influence of the BERLIN WALL concept on the perception of East and West German citizens of each other, analyses the linguistic reflection of changes in political and social life in Germany in the critical era after German reunification. The description of the socio-historical contexts of the emergence of eonyms as representatives of the BERLIN WALL concept allows us to characterise the existing linguistic stereotypes in the German language. The analysis highlights the eonyms and their derivatives, which appear with certain cyclicity, linking historical events with each other and characterising the dynamic development of society and language. The unfolding of the meanings projected in the eonyms allows us to identify the most significant historical events reflected in the concept of BERLIN WALL, to interpret the differences in communicative behaviour between the inhabitants of East and West Germany.

The thesis suggests the comprehensive approach towards the study of the origin, development and functioning of grammar category of number in different historic periods of the German language. The investigation of the number of a noun in this study is based on a synchronic-diachronic approach. To solve the tasks, the comparative historical method, the method of linguistic reconstruction and descriptive analysis were used. The analysis is based on Old-, Middle- and Early High German texts as well as the data from lexicographic sources of the German language. In the course of the study, the chronology of the origin and genetic origins of the grammatical category of number in the German language were traced. We have identified and disclosed the features of the origin and development of the studied units in the diachronic aspect. The linguistic reconstruction of the preforms was also carried out and the primary motivation of the lexemes under study was revealed. It is suggested that the origin and development of the concept of number came from the opposition 'whole / part', which served as the source of the concept of 'singularity / duality (plurality)', to the emergence of proper grammatical formatives of the category of number in the Indo-European proto-language. The material of the analyzed ancient texts made it possible to single out a clear realization of the singular and plural in the nouns and to find traces of the dual, the functioning of which belongs to the preliterate time. As shown by the analysis of literary texts of all periods of the development of the German language, the most ancient one is the non-reflective type, which belongs to the lexical type of plurality, other means of expressing the number indicate the transition to the grammatical level and at the same time the emergence of grammatical markers of number. The research results of grammar category of number allowed defining the grammar-phonetic markers of plurality which replaced the semantic ones. Thus, we may suggest the idea about the substitution of the synthetic expression means by the analytic ones.