Why do Tibetan pastoralists hunt?

Sanjiangyuan National Park (SNP), the first national park established in China, plays a pivotal role in conserving biodiversity on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. This study investigates the habitat suitability and projected future distribution of four key species: the Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii), kiang (Equus kiang), Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), and wild yak (Bos mutus). Utilizing 358 occurrence records and the MaxEnt model, we predicted current and future suitable habitats under different climate scenarios for the years 2050 and 2070. Our findings indicate that suitable habitats are significantly influenced by factors such as elevation, temperature, and vegetation health. Among the species studied, the Tibetan gazelle exhibits the most extensive suitable habitat, followed by the kiang, Tibetan antelope, and wild yak. Specifically, the Tibetan antelope’s habitat is anticipated to shift northward, while the kiang and wild yak may experience further habitat fragmentation, thereby increasing risks to their populations. Additionally, the results highlight the importance of integrating climate considerations into future conservation planning to ensure the long-term survival of these species. By identifying regions with optimal environmental conditions, conservation strategies can be more effectively directed to maintain and improve these habitats, thereby preserving biodiversity within the Sanjiangyuan region.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-23536-4.

Ungulates are essential for maintaining the health of grassland ecosystems on the Tibetan plateau. Increased livestock grazing has caused competition for food resources, threatening ungulates’ survival. The survival risk of food resources for ungulates can be quantified by the grazing pressure index, which requires accurate grassland carrying capacity. Previous research on the grazing pressure index has rarely taken into account the influence of wild ungulates, mainly due to the lack of precise spatial data on their quantity. In this study, we conducted field investigations to construct high-resolution spatial distributions for the four endemic ungulates on the Tibetan plateau. By factoring in the grazing consumption of these ungulates, we recalculated the grassland carrying capacity to obtain the grazing pressure index, which allowed us to assess the survival risks for each species. The results show: (1) Quantity estimates for Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii), Tibetan wild donkey (Equus kiang), Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), and wild yak (Bos mutus) of the Tibetan plateau are 24.57 × 104, 17.93 × 104, 7.16 × 104, and 1.88 × 104, respectively; they mainly distributed in the northern and western regions of the Tibetan plateau. (2) The grassland carrying capacity of the Tibetan plateau is 69.98 million sheep units, with ungulate grazing accounting for 5% of forage utilization. Alpine meadow and alpine steppe exhibit the highest grassland carrying capacity. (3) The grazing pressure index on the Tibetan plateau grasslands is 2.23, indicating a heightened grazing pressure in the southern and eastern regions. (4) The habitat survival risk analysis indicates that the high survival risk (the grazing pressure index exceeds 1.2) areas for the four ungulate species account for the following proportions of their total habitat areas: Tibetan wild donkeys (49.76%), Tibetan gazelles (47.00%), Tibetan antelopes (40.76%), and wild yaks (34.83%). These high-risk areas are primarily located within alpine meadow and temperate desert steppe. This study provides a quantitative assessment of survival risks for these four ungulate species on the Tibetan plateau grasslands and serves as a valuable reference for ungulate conservation and grassland ecosystem management.

We used unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to carry out a relatively complete population census of large wild herbivores in Maduo County on the Tibetan Plateau in the spring of 2017. The effective area covered by aerial surveys was 326.6 km2, and 23,784 images were acquired. Interpretation tag libraries for UAV images were created for wild animals, including Kiang (Equus kiang), Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), as well as livestock, including yaks and Tibetan sheep. Large wild herbivores in the survey transect were identified through manual imagery interpretation. Densities ranged from 1.15/km2 for Kiang, 0.61/km2 for Tibetan gazelle, 0.62/km2 for blue sheep, 4.12/km2 for domestic yak, and 7.34/km2 for domestic sheep. A method based on meadows in the cold and warm seasons was used for estimating the densities and numbers of large wild herbivores and livestock, and was verified against records of livestock numbers. Population estimates for Kiang, Tibetan gazelle, blue sheep, domestic yak, and domestic sheep were 17,109, 15,961, 9324, 70,846, and 102,194, respectively. Based on published consumption estimates, the results suggest that domestic stock consume 4.5 times the amount of vegetation of large wild herbivores. Compared with traditional ground survey methods, performance of UAV remote sensing surveys of large wild herbivore populations was fast, economical and reliable, providing an effective future method for surveying wild animals.

Species interactions are crucial for understanding how species will respond to future climate change. Incorporating interspecific relationships into mammalian distribution prediction models will significantly impact model outcomes, especially those for animals on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP). Thus, we incorporated interspecific relationships into species distribution models to assess and predict the future distributions of five ungulates, including the Red deer (Cervus elaphus), the Kiang (Equus kiang), the Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), the Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii), and the Bharal (Pseudois nayaur). We found that (1) the suitable habitats of these five ungulates were all predicted to increase between the present and 2050; (2) the suitable distribution areas of four of these ungulates were predicted to be smaller when interspecific relationships were incorporated into the models, with the exception of the Red deer, whose suitable habitat was estimated to be larger; and (3) the centroids of suitable habitat for the five ungulates were predicted to shift to the southern part of the QTP by 2050. Our results demonstrated that interspecific relationships could influence predictions of species distributions, and thus incorporating interspecific relationships will facilitate better assessments and predictions of the future distributions of species.

Tibetan brown bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus) is an endemic subspecies of brown bear on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau. We once reported a preliminary study on the summer food habit of Tibetan brown bear from July to August, 2005 in the Kekexili (Hoh Xil).. However, the hunting modes of the Tibetan brawn bear have not been reported. From July to August, 2009, we collected additional data on food habits and hunting patterns of Tibetan brown bear in the Kekexili region. We found Tibetan brown bears are more raptatorial than vegetarian, and their basal food was plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae), relative frequency occurrence of pika in the fecal residual of brawn bear was 37.3%, dry weight of pika residuals was 44.7%, respectively, followed by wild yak (Bos grunniens) , 18.7% and 30.2%, and Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni) 15.0% and 16.2%. Both prey actively mode and scavenge mode were used by Tibetan brown bears in Kekexili. Tibetan brawn bears actively dug and hunted for pika and scavenged bodies of wild yak, Tibetan antelope and Tibetan gazelle. We observed that Tibetan brawn bears spent about 10% of their time to dig and to hunt for pika but we had never seen Tibetan brawn bears actively hunted large mammals such as wild yak, Tibetan antelope and Tibetan gazelle. The total amount of Tibetan antelope, Tibetan gazelle and wild yak ingested by Tibetan brown bear through scavenge was about the same amount of Plateau pika and Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) eaten by the bear.

Understanding the use of small bridges and culverts by wildlife to cross the Qinghai–Tibet railway will aid in the design of wildlife crossing structures for similar transportation infrastructure. From 2014 to 2016, 36 infrared cameras were placed inside 14 small bridges and 11 culverts along the Qinghai–Tibet railway to determine the structures’ effectiveness as wildlife passages. Thirteen species of mammals were found to use the small bridges and culverts to cross the railway. The crossing rates for all mammals were significantly higher for small bridges than for culverts. Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii), Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), kiang (Equus kiang), and wild yak (Bos mutus) preferred small bridges over culverts to cross the railway. In contrast, mountain weasel (Mustela altaica) and Asian badger (Meles leucurus) preferred culverts to cross the railway. The crossing rates of all mammals, particularly Tibetan gazelle and woolly hare, were positively influenced by structure width. Structure height had a positive influence on wild yak, but structure length had a negative influence on kiang. The distance to the highway had a positive influence on the crossing rates of all mammals, particularly wild yak and woolly hare. Human use of the structures had no influence on the crossings of most mammals except for common wolf. We suggest that road design schemes include large and open crossing structures to benefit most species with limitations on human activities near wildlife passages.

Understanding the change in the habitat distributions and abundance of wildlife in space and time is critical for the conservation of biodiversity and mitigate human–wildlife conflicts (HWCs). Tibetan antelope or chiru (Pantholops hodgsonii), Tibetan gazelle or goa (Procapra picticaudata), Tibetan wild ass or kiang (Equus kiang), and Wild yak (Bos mutus) have been sympatric on the Qinghai–Tibetan plateau (QTP) for numerous generations. However, reviews on the habitat distributions and abundance of these four wild herbivores (WHs), as well as the methods examining the changes in these aspects, are still lacking. Here, we firstly review the distributions and abundance of four major WHs on the QTP across different periods, examining the underlying causes of changes and HWCs. Furthermore, we critically compare three aspects of methods: transect surveys, machine learning (ML), and deep learning (DL) methods of studying WHs. The results show that since the 1990s, the distributions and abundance of WHs have exhibited a trend of initial decline followed by recovery, largely attributed to global climate warming and a decrease in illegal hunting. However, in recent years, the primary challenge has shifted from wildlife protection to balancing the human and wildlife interests within the constraints of limited resources. In the future, we should focus on enhancing the ecological functions of habitats to achieve harmonious coexistence between humans and nature, as well as establishing a scientific compensation mechanism to mitigate human–wildlife conflicts. In order to accurately calculate the changes, we should select appropriate models to analyze the habitats of wildlife based on their specific characteristics and the environmental conditions. Additionally, with the advancement of large models, AI (artificial intelligence) should be utilized for precise and rapid wildlife conservation. The findings of this study also provide guidance and reference for addressing the issues related to wildlife habitats and abundance in other regions globally.

PDF HTML阅读 XML下载 导出引用 引用提醒 阿尔金山自然保护区基于野牦牛、藏野驴、藏羚羊适宜栖息地的生态容量估测 DOI: 10.5846/stxb201405181016 作者: 作者单位: 北京师范大学环境学院 作者简介: 通讯作者: 中图分类号: 基金项目: 环保公益项目(201209033);国家"十二五"科技支撑项目(2012BAC01B02) Estimation of ecological carrying capacity for wild yak, kiang, and Tibetan antelope based on habitat suitability in the Aerjin Mountain Nature Reserve, China Author: Affiliation: School of Environment,Beijing Normal University,State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation Fund Project: 摘要 | 图/表 | 访问统计 | 参考文献 | 相似文献 | 引证文献 | 资源附件 | 文章评论 摘要:阿尔金山国家级自然保护区保护了以野牦牛(Bos mutus)、藏野驴(Equus kiang)、藏羚羊(Pantholops hodgsoni)为代表的青藏高原特有野生动物及其栖息地,但是近年来野生动物数量的快速增长引发了栖息地退化的问题,科学量化阿尔金山自然保护区各类栖息地对野牦牛、藏羚羊、藏野驴的生态容量,并提出相应的野生动物管理措施,是实现保护区可持续管理的根本途径。本文应用遥感技术和地面调查相结合的方法,系统分析了保护区内野牦牛、藏野驴和藏羚羊的栖息地需求,建立了植物生物量和NDVI 的关系模型,结合三类野生动物的食性分析,估测了适宜栖息地(高寒草原、高寒荒漠草原、高寒草甸、高寒荒漠)为三类野生动物提供的可食植物量,推算了适宜栖息地和整个保护区可以承载三类野生动物的生态容量。结果表明:阿尔金山自然保护区内野牦牛、藏野驴和藏羚羊的适宜栖息地面积分别为31866.07、24035.51、24035.51 km2,三类野生动物的适宜栖息地之间相互重叠,藏野驴和藏羚羊的适宜栖息地基本相同;全保护区内,高寒草原、高寒荒漠草原、高寒荒漠和高寒草甸分别提供了3944.91×104、3126.32×104、138.19×104、564.49×104 kg可食植物量;结合三类野生动物的栖息地重叠程度及食物需求量分析,得出阿尔金山保护区的最大生态容量为野牦牛7951头/a、藏野驴6907头/a、藏羚羊27094只/a;结合三类野生动物对食物资源的占有率估计,得出阿尔金山三类野生动物的生态容量变幅为野牦牛3976-7156头/a,藏野驴3454-6216头/a、藏羚羊13547-24385只/a。根据阿尔金山自然保护区各类栖息地对三类野生动物的生态容量,提出适当控制藏野驴种群数量、增加藏羚羊种群数量的建议,以促进野生动物种群数量的持续增长和栖息地的有效保护。 Abstract:Altun Mountain National Nature Reserve (AMNNR) on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China, is a major refuge for three wild ungulates;wild yak (Bos mutus), kiang (Equus kiang), and Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni). This nature reserve is important for conserving these three wild endemic ungulates and their habitats. Over decades of conservation, the populations of these three ungulates have increased rapidly. However, the administrators of AMNNR considered that the kiang might have become overpopulated, which would result in habitat degradation. Thus, it is vital implement wildlife management planning based on the quantification of ecological carrying capacity for sustainable nature reserve management. In this study, vehicular transects were conducted to survey the distribution data and record the populations of wild yak, kiang, and Tibetan antelope from May to June, 2012, and June to July, 2013, in the AMNNR. We integrated remote sensing data analysis with on-the-ground plot surveys to identify suitable habitats (alpine steppe, alpine desert steppe, alpine desert, and alpine meadow) for all three ungulates, and we estimated habitat production. A dietary analysis of wild yak, kiang, and Tibetan antelope was completed to estimate the amount of edible grasses required for the three wild ungulates in suitable habitats. Using the empirical formula (calculation of the proper carrying capacity of rangelands) provided by the PRC Ministry of Agriculture, we quantified the carrying capacity for all three species in suitable habitats and in the whole natural reserve. The results showed that areas of suitable habitat for wild yak, kiang, and Tibetan antelope were 31866.07 km2, 24035.51 km2, and 24035.51 km2, respectively. There were big overlaps in the suitable habitats for all three wild ungulates, which shared almost the same suitable habitats. Within the suitable habitats, alpine steppe, alpine desert steppe, alpine desert, and alpine meadow could potentially provide 3944.91×104 kg, 3126.32×104 kg, 138.19×104 kg, and 564.49×104 kg edible grasses, respectively for these three species. Considering the overlaps of suitable habitats and the different requirements of the three species, the maximum ecological carrying capacities of the whole nature reserve were estimated to be 7951 heads/year for wild yak, 6907 heads/year for kiang, and 24959 heads/year for Tibetan antelope. The ecological carrying capacity ranges under different probabilities of food availability were 3976-7156 heads/year for wild yak, 3454-6216 heads/year for kiang, and 13547-24385 heads/year for Tibetan antelope. Comparison of the actual population size and that which could be supported by the ecological carrying capacity of suitable habitats within the AMNNR, indicated that kiang are overpopulated, wild yak are close to the maximum ecological carrying capacity, and Tibetan antelope are underpopulated. Therefore, the best management practice should be applied to control the kiang population and to promote the Tibetan antelope population. Such action would balance the different wildlife species that share the same habitats and would maintain habitat health to sustain the AMNNR. Conservation efforts should focus on the long-term ecological monitoring of habitats in the reserve to avoid grassland degradation caused by the overpopulation of animals. 参考文献 相似文献 引证文献

In 1993 the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) of China established the 300 000 km2 Chang Tang Nature Preserve on the northwestern Tibetan plateau, an action precipitated by rapidly diminishing populations of chiru (Tibetan antelope) and wild yak. Some 30 000 nomadic pastoralists use areas within this reserve for livestock grazing, with many having traditionally depended in part on hunting for supplementary subsistence and trade. Following a 1997 request from TAR leaders for international assistance in addressing the conservation issues associated with the creation of this reserve, the TAR Forestry Bureau and the Network for University Co-operation Tibet — Norway began a 3-year research collaboration program in 2000 to outline human-wildlife interactions and conservation priorities in the western part of the reserve. To date, four excursions (2-6 weeks each) have been made to the western Chang Tang region, and investigations of interactions between pastoralists and wildlife conservation objectives have been initiated in an area of about 5000 km2, including the 2300 km2 Aru basin located at 5000 m elevation at the northern edge of pastoralist inhabitation. The Aru site is unique in that nomads have only recently returned to this previously off-limits basin. But, as in surrounding areas, the people's lives are undergoing changes recently influenced by the introduction of permanent winter houses, changing international trade in shahtoosh and cashmere wool, and a move towards stricter hunting regulations. The northwestern Chang Tang, with the Aru basin as a prime site, represents one of the last strongholds of the endangered chiru and wild yak, as well as home to Tibetan gazelle, kiang, Tibetan argali, blue sheep, wolf, snow leopard and brown bear. In autumn 2000, for example, with approximately 12 000 of the wild ungulates (mostly the migratory chiru) within the Aru basin along with some 8000 domestic livestock, issues of land use overlap and possible grazing competition are clear to both local nomads and reserve managers. Whereas livestock development actions elsewhere on the Tibetan plateau are promoting increased livestock production, they are doing so at the expense of wildlife, and such an approach will not be appropriate in areas where wildlife conservation is a major priority. Although some of the ongoing livestock development programs may be adapted to the western TAR, new approaches to pastoral development will have to be developed in the reserve. The ultimate goal of enhancing the nomads' standard of living, while conserving this truly unique array of biodiversity, presents a daunting challenge.

The Ladakh region of the Indian Trans-Himalaya supports twelve large herbivores, including eight mountain ungulates. Many of the species like the Tibetan antelope are highly endangered with rapidly declining populations. Yet there is little information on their status and distributions, especially in remote, inaccessible areas. We report on the status and distribution of five large herbivores in the Chang Chenmo and the Daulat Beg Oldi (DBO) areas of Ladakh, which remain the least known areas in Ladakh in terms of wildlife populations because they are very remote and politically highly sensitive. During the surveys, we observed 246 Tibetan antelopes and 40 blue sheep in DBO. In Chang Chenmo we observed 40 Tibetan antelopes, 2 wild yaks, 42 Tibetan argalis, 67 Tibetan wild asses and 30 blue sheep. In DBO, the encounter rate was higher for the Tibetan antelope (mean = 2.54, SE = 0.63) than the blue sheep (mean = 0.29, SE = 0.19). In Chang Chenmo the highest encounter rate was for the Tibetan wild ass (mean = 0.48, SE = 0.26), whereas the wild yak had the lowest (mean = 0.02, SE = 0.01). Since Chang Cehnmo and DBO are important areas for rare species in India, and are located right at the border with China, there is an urgent need for international collaboration to protect these threatened animals.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/on.v9i1.5734

The targets of China’s national park construction are to protect the authenticity and integrity of the ecosystems, and to achieve the harmonious development between humans and nature. Because of the high intensity of human activities, the authenticity of ecosystems has deviated over the past few decades. It is time to rewild the wildlife and restore the authenticity of these ecosystems. The status of rewilding wildlife in Sanjiangyuan National Park, indicating that the wildlife population, diversity and wildness have increased within the National Park. The wildlife population in the national park has been restored, with about 60,000 Tibetan antelope, 60,000 Tibetan gazelle, 36,000 Tibetan wild ass, 10,000 wild yak, and 10,000 white-lipped deer up to 2017. However, overgrazing existed on the alpine grassland with population increasing both of ungulates and livestock.

Spatial dimensions play a significant role in niche differentiation, facilitating species coexistence. Understanding how sympatric ungulates optimize habitat utilization and how they co-exist in resource-limited environments is essential for effective wildlife conservation and reserve management. Tibetan antelope (chiru, Pantholops hodgsonii), Tibetan wild ass (kiang, Equus kiang), and wild yak (Bos grunniens) are sympatric ungulates co-evolving over generations across the Tibetan Plateau, but limited information is available on their spatial partitioning and the key variables affecting both single-species and multi-species distributions. In this study, using a combination of maximum entropy model, joint species distribution models, and random forest analysis, we examined the spatial partitioning of the three ungulates and identified the critical factors influencing their distributions with their spatial distribution data collected from the Arjin Shan National Nature Reserve in the Tibetan Plateau. Our key findings: (i) Notable differences were observed in the spatial distributions of the three ungulates, with only 16% overlap in their suitable habitats. Temperature had a stronger influence on the habitat selection by chiru and kiang, whereas precipitation played a more significant role in determining the distributions of kiang and wild yak. (ii) During summer, the interspecific relationships between chiru and wild yak, and between chiru and kiang exhibited positive correlations, while the relationship between wild yak and kiang was negatively correlated. In winter, all interspecific relationships were negatively correlated. (iii) Temperature seasonality and mean temperature of the driest quarter emerged as the most critical variables influencing multi-species habitat selection. Human interference had a significantly negative impact on all three ungulate species. Our findings underscore the importance of spatial heterogeneity in facilitating species coexistence under both climatic and anthropogenic pressures, offering valuable insights for multi-species conservation planning in resource-limited ecosystems.

Aim We aimed to examine the phylogeographical structure and demographic history of domestic and wild yaks (Bos grunniens) based on a wide range of samples and complete mitochondrial genomic sequences.Location The Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau (QTP) of western China.Methods All available D‐loop sequences for 405 domesticated yaks and 47 wild yaks were examined, including new sequences from 96 domestic and 34 wild yaks. We further sequenced the complete mitochondrial genomes of 48 domesticated and 21 wild yaks. Phylogeographical analyses were performed using the mitochondrial D‐loop and the total genome datasets.Results We recovered a total of 123 haplotypes based on the D‐loop sequences in wild and domestic yaks. Phylogenetic analyses of this dataset and the mitochondrial genome data suggested three well‐supported and divergent lineages. Two lineages with six D‐loop haplogroups were recovered for all morphological breeds of domestic yaks across their distributions in the QTP, while one more lineage and more endemic haplogroups or haplotypes were found for wild yaks. Based on the mitochondrial genome data, the divergences of the three lineages were estimated to have occurred around 420,000 and 580,000 years ago, consistent with the geological records of two large glaciation events experienced in the QTP.Main conclusions There are distinct phylogeographical differences between wild and domestic yaks. However, there is no apparent geographical correlation between identified haplogroups and distributions of domestic yaks. Three differentiated lineages of yaks probably evolved allopatrically in different regions during the Pleistocene glaciation events, then reunited into a single gene pool during post‐glacial population expansion and migrations before the start of the domestication of yaks in the Holocene.

There is an urgent need of understanding the distribution and abundance of the key species, Tibetan wild ass ( Equus kiang ), Tibetan gazelle ( Procapra picticaudata ) and Tibetan antelope ( Pantholops hodgsonii ) in the Three-River-Source National Park, especially after the first national park in China established there. We carried out field surveys in summers from 2014 to 2017 following the distance sampling protocol in the park, covering an area of 538000 km2. The total length of the survey routes is 14597.8 km. We recorded 3711 individuals of Tibetan wild ass, 1187 individuals of Tibetan gazelles, and 423 individuals of Tibetan antelopes. In order to accurately estimate the species abundance, we used species distribution models to quantify the relationship between species accurrences and 22 environmental variables, and predicted the population density in the whole study area. We compared the model prediction and field survey results, and made adjustment accordingly. The estimated abundance of Tibetan wild ass, Tibetan gazelle and Tibetan antelope in the study area is 44240, 13162, and 2390, respectively. To evaluate the potential bias of the estimation, we took into account of survey uncertainties, model uncertainties, and adjustment uncertainties using the detaction function based on distance sampling, R 2 of species distribution models, and spatial heterogeneity of model-observation matchness. Our new method for estimating species abundance is suitable for species whose distribution is well correlated with environmental varibles, and the results of distance sampling are available.

Ecological adaptation mechanisms of plateau ungulates to seasonal nomadic pastoralism on the eastern Qinghai-Tibetan plateau