Abstract
(1) Background: Why and when images of watching eyes encourage prosocial behavior is still subject to discussion, and two recent meta-analyses show no effect of watching eyes on generosity. This study aims to discern the effect of watching eyes of different valence on two separate aspects of prosocial behavior, and additionally investigates whether individuals’ social value orientation moderates the effect of eyes. (2) Methods: Individuals take on the role of either a first or second mover in an incentivized, anonymous sequential prisoner’s dilemma (n = 247), a two-person game which separates the need to form expectations about the other player (first mover cooperation, trust) from the motive of greed (second mover cooperation, reciprocity). During decision-making, a picture of either kind eyes, unkind eyes, or a control picture is presented above each decision matrix. (3) Results: The results indicate that unkind eyes, and not kind eyes, significantly boost first mover cooperation. In contrast, neither type of eye cues increase second mover cooperation. Social value orientation does not moderate these effects. (4) Conclusions: Thus, the data suggest that the valence of eye cues matters, and we propose that unkind eyes urge first movers to live up to the interaction partner’s expectations.
Highlights
A wealth of research has documented that the presence of subtle, even irrelevant, social cues in the form of a pair of watching eyes can encourage prosocial and normative choice behavior in various settings
Before presenting the details and results of this experiment, we further develop hypotheses regarding the effect of eye cues with different valence on first and second movers’ decisions
This paper aims to further identify the boundary conditions of a positive effect of watching eyes on prosocial behavior (‘the eye effect’), which has been heavily contested in recent studies
Summary
A wealth of research has documented that the presence of subtle, even irrelevant, social cues in the form of a pair of watching eyes can encourage prosocial and normative choice behavior in various settings. Researchers have argued that eyes seem to call up more than just the idea that others are around [1]: subtly featuring eyes on an online platform enhanced prosociality whereas featuring groups of peers, or providing auditory cues, did not This is perhaps not surprising, as one can still feel anonymous in large groups (where personal acts can be diluted), whereas eyes watching over you are an indication that there is no place to hide, and are a reminder that actions will have consequences. Whether, and under what conditions, eyes trigger such reputation concerns is still subject to discussion
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