Abstract
Elephant were previously widespread in savanna and coastal systems of KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), but were virtually extirpated by 1870. Over time, elephant have been reintroduced into their former range in KZN, but always onto small fenced systems (mean size 191.3 km2 ± 87.8 km2, median size 107.0 km2, range 14 km2 – 900 km2). These populations have increased rapidly (8.4% per annum), and although a number of populations are now being managed using contraception, the majority of the populations (66.7%, 14 out of 21) are stocked above the ‘preferred density’ as defined in their approved management plans, while others will soon exceed the preferred density. Vulture populations in KZN are small, declining and already at risk of extinction. In KZN, 94.2% of tree-nesting vulture nests occur in areas with elephant; this could increase to 99.5% in the near future if proposed land-use change takes place. Anthropogenic impacts in the broader landscape mean that there are limited opportunities for vultures to nest elsewhere, and we hypothesise that loss of suitable nesting habitat in existing areas, including through impact of elephant on large trees, could result in declines and even extirpation of these species as breeding residents. Given the demonstrated and potential impacts of elephants on large trees necessary for vulture nesting, it is essential that the role of protected areas and extensive wildlife systems for vultures be adequately taken into account when managing elephant populations. It is important that a precautionary and adaptive management approach is taken regarding management of elephant in areas important for vultures, at least until the ecological interactions between vultures, vegetation, elephant and other drivers are better understood, and until the willingness and ability to manage elephant numbers and impact according to the elephant management plans are demonstrated.
Highlights
The objectives of this paper are to: (1) assess the potential vulnerability of tree-nesting vulture populations, as resident breeding species in KZN, to elephant impact by quantifying the extent of overlap of elephant populations and vulture nesting sites, (2) evaluate the ability to manage elephant populations by assessing current elephant densities of all KZN elephant populations against preferred densities as defined in the various elephant management plans, thereby indirectly assessing the effectiveness of the National Norms and Standards for the Management of Elephant in South Africa to protect other elements of concern where there are elephant, and (3) to provide management recommendations to reduce the vulnerability of tree-nesting vultures to elephant
100% of Lappet-faced (n = 17), 100% of White-headed (n = 2) and 94.0% of African White-backed Vulture (n = 568) nests co-occur with elephant
The imminent dropping of fences between the ‘Big 5’ properties and the neighbouring Hluhluwe–iMfolozi Park will result in the immigration of elephants, thereby increasing the overall proportion of vulture nests co-occurring with elephant to 96.1%
Summary
Elephant (Loxodonta africana) once occurred widely across South Africa and the entire savanna and the Indian Ocean Coastal Belt biomes of KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) (Birss et al 2015; Rushworth 2017a; Skinner & Chimimba 2005). They were largely extirpated from KZN by 1870 barring a small migratory population in northern Maputaland, eventually fenced into Tembe Elephant Park. A combination of factors has resulted in a high population growth to date, and importantly, a high future growth potential and requirement for active management of population sizes
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