Abstract
Vitamin D is involved in calcium and phosphorus metabolism, and is vital for numerous bodily functions. In the absence of sufficient UV-B light-induced skin biosynthesis, dietary intake becomes the most important source of vitamin D. In the absence of biosynthesis, the recommended dietary vitamin D intake is 10–20 µg/day. Major contributors to dietary vitamin D intake are the few foods naturally containing vitamin D (i.e., fish), enriched foods, and supplements. The present study aimed to estimate the vitamin D intake in Slovenia, to identify food groups that notably contribute to vitamin D intake, and to predict the effects of hypothetical mandatory milk fortification. This study was conducted using data collected by the national cross-sectional food consumption survey (SI.Menu) in adolescents (n = 468; 10–17 years), adults (n = 364; 18–64 years), and the elderly (n = 416; 65–74 years). Data collection was carried out between March 2017 and April 2018 using the EU Menu Methodology, which included two 24-h recalls, and a food propensity questionnaire. Very low vitamin D intakes were found; many did not even meet the threshold for very low vitamin D intake (2.5 µg/day). Mean daily vitamin D intake was 2.7, 2.9, and 2.5 µg in adolescents, adults, and the elderly, respectively. Daily energy intake was found to be a significant predictor of vitamin D intake in all population groups. In adolescents and adults, sex was also found to be a significant predictor, with higher vitamin D intake in males. The study results explained the previously reported high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Slovenia. An efficient policy approach is required to address the risk of vitamin D deficiency, particularly in vulnerable populations.
Highlights
Vitamin D (VitD) deficiency and insufficiency are global health issues, posing a major public health risk [1,2]
We aimed to identify food groups that notably contribute to VitD intake, and to estimate changes in dietary VitD intakes in the hypothetical scenario of mandatory milk fortification
The study population was representative for sex and age
Summary
Vitamin D (VitD) deficiency and insufficiency are global health issues, posing a major public health risk [1,2]. Due to the changing solar zenith angle in European countries situated above the latitude of 35◦ N [9] (including Slovenia; 45–46◦ N [10]), the intensity of UVB light in wintertime is not sufficient to induce cutaneous synthesis of VitD [11]. In such cases, dietary intake becomes a major source of VitD [12,13]. These typically contain daily dosages of up to about 100 μg [16,23]
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