Abstract
Big data offer a great opportunity for nature-based recreation (NbR) mapping and evaluation. However, it is important to determine when and how it is appropriate to use this resource. We used Scotland as a case study to validate the use of data from Flickr as an indicator of NbR on a national scale and at several regional spatial and temporal resolutions. We compared Flickr photographs to visitor statistics in the Cairngorms National Park (CNP) and determined whether temporal variability in photo counts could be explained by known annual estimates of CNP visitor numbers. We then used a unique recent national survey of nature recreation in Scotland to determine whether the spatial distribution of Flickr photos could be explained by known spatial variability in nature use. Following this validation work, we used Flickr data to identify hotspots of wildlife watching in Scotland and investigated how they changed between 2005 and 2015. We found that spatial and temporal patterns in Flickr count are explained by measures of visitation obtained through surveys and that this relationship is reliable down to a 10 Km scale resolution. Our findings have implications for planning and management of NbR as they suggest that photographs uploaded on Flickr reflect patterns of NbR at spatial and temporal scales that are relevant for ecosystem management.
Highlights
Nature-based recreation (NbR) is a key cultural ecosystem service provided by nature and it represents a big component of global recreation [1]
We tested whether temporal patterns of Quantifying wildlife watching with social media photographs taken at an NbR site and posted on Flickr corresponded to patterns found in time series of visitor numbers obtained from the Cairngorms National Park (CNP) authority
Short-term and seasonal patterns of photographs uploaded on Flickr show a reliable statistical relationship with temporal patterns of visitation to an NbR destination captured by classical data collection methods
Summary
Nature-based recreation (NbR) is a key cultural ecosystem service provided by nature and it represents a big component of global recreation [1]. NbR is an important issue because of its economic contribution to conservation [2,3], the health benefits it brings to humans [4] and its role in alleviating poverty [5]. Wildlife watching is a very popular NbR activity that was initially welcomed by conservation and environmental organisations as an eco-friendly alternative to consumptive activities, such as hunting and fishing [6]. There is growing evidence that wildlife watching, if not managed properly, can have negative effects on the environment [7,8,9]. Quantifying temporal and spatial patterns of wildlife watching can help management by identifying areas that are under high pressure from these activities and areas that.
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