Abstract
The high economic costs of human–wildlife conflicts (HWC) hinder long-term conservation successes, especially in developing countries. We investigated HWC by interviewing 498 respondents from 42 villages in Nowshera district, Pakistan. According to respondents, six species—the common leopard (Panthera pardus), grey wolf (Canis lupus), golden jackal (Canis aureus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica), and wild boar (Sus scrofa)—were involved in livestock predation and crop-raiding. Livestock predation (N = 670) translated into a total annual economic loss of USD 48,490 across the 42 villages, with the highest economic loss of USD 57.1/household/year attributed to the golden jackal. Crop damage by wild boar and porcupine incurred a total annual economic loss of USD 18,000. Results further showed that livestock predation was highly affected by location, prey type, prey age, and herding practices, while cereals and vegetables were preferred crops for wild boar and Indian porcupine. The grey wolf was declared as the most dangerous carnivore, followed by the golden jackal and common leopard. Negative attitude about golden jackal and wild boar prevails among 90% of the respondents of the study area. We strongly assume that the abundance of apex predators can control the economic impacts of meso-carnivores and wild boar on the community’s livelihood. Keeping relatively smaller herds may reduce carnivore attacks and educating the populous and compensation can minimise negative perceptions of HWC. To reduce HWC in the study area, there should be an incessant and timely coordination between wildlife officials and the local community.
Highlights
Of 40–50% of Earth’s surface transformation by humans, 10–15% is allocated for different land-use types such as urbanisation, agriculture, and irrigation, while an additional 6–8% has been converted into pastures [2]
Nowshera district encompasses an area of 1748 km2 and is divided into 47 union councils (UC)
Our results indicate that the livestock predation rate was lower in the study area with less than one livestock killed per year per household compared to other reported studies such as [40] and [46], which reported a loss of 1.85 and 1.74 livestock per household per year, respectively
Summary
Humans have dominated landscapes in the past two centuries, and almost every ecosystem on Earth is influenced by human activities [1,2]. Over the past two centuries, anthropogenic activities have undeniably transformed the planet Earth and started an Anthropocene era [3]. These transformations include various activities that vary substantially in intensity and consequences [2]. Of 40–50% of Earth’s surface transformation by humans, 10–15% is allocated for different land-use types such as urbanisation, agriculture, and irrigation, while an additional 6–8% has been converted into pastures [2].
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