Abstract
Rice is a worldwide staple food and heavy metal contamination is often reported in rice production. Heavy metal can originate from natural sources or be present through anthropogenic contamination. Therefore, this review summarizes the current status of heavy metal contamination in paddy soil and plants, highlighting the mechanism of uptake, bioaccumulation, and health risk assessment. A scoping search employing Google Scholar, Science Direct, Research Gate, Scopus, and Wiley Online was carried out to build up the review using the following keywords: heavy metals, absorption, translocation, accumulation, uptake, biotransformation, rice, and human risk with no restrictions being placed on the year of study. Cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), and lead (Pb) have been identified as the most prevalent metals in rice cultivation. Mining and irrigation activities are primary sources, but chemical fertilizer and pesticide usage also contribute to heavy metal contamination of paddy soil worldwide. Further to their adverse effect on the paddy ecosystem by reducing the soil fertility and grain yield, heavy metal contamination represents a risk to human health. An in-depth discussion is further offered on health risk assessments by quantitative measurement to identify potential risk towards heavy metal exposure via rice consumption, which consisted of in vitro digestion models through a vital ingestion portion of rice.
Highlights
In order to achieve this goal, this review initially describes the mechanism of heavy metal uptake in paddy plants and soils and their contributing factors with respect to bioaccumulation
Barman and Bhargava [113] reported that the Enrichment Factor (EF) value for edible parts, such as rice grain, is an important criterion for the selection of suitable crop species, which can be selected for cultivation in a field having an elevated level of metal contamination or receiving industrial effluent
Praveena and Omar [167] found that rice that was collected from markets in Malaysia has a high potential of non-carcinogenic risk based on hazard index (HI) values for both adults and children by 27.0 and 18.0, respectively, through a combination of trace element and heavy metal exposure
Summary
Because heavy metals are proclaimed to amass in living organisms, especially toxic metals, such as As, Cd, and Pb, health risk assessments are conducted on the basis of heavy metal concentration found in paddy plants and soils to evaluate the potential health risk [26]. In order to achieve this goal, this review initially describes the mechanism of heavy metal uptake in paddy plants and soils and their contributing factors with respect to bioaccumulation. This review tries to provide an overview on the human risk assessment in relation to non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk In this regard, it covers information regarding in vitro digestion models that can be conducted to determine the bioaccessible form of heavy metals
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