Tributary Ceremony and National Security: A Reassessment of <em>Wokou</em> Diplomacy between China and Japan during the Early Ming Dynasty

Abstract

The diplomatic relationship between China and Japan during the early Ming may serve as a connecting link between the preceding Yuan dynasty and the following periods. When past scholars have studied the international relations of ancient East Asia, traditionally, they have explored it from the perspective of the tributary system, and emphasized ceremony and trade as the crucial factors in the tributary system. However, it should be realized that this monochromatic and static model does not fit into the realistic relationship between China and Japan of the early Ming dynasty. The Wokou were a serious threat to China’s security, and it was the most important factor influencing the relations between China and Japan during the Hongwu 洪武 reign. If the Japanese authorities had been able to suppress the Wokou, Hongwu would have been interested to maintain good relations with Japan, and would have rewarded them with money, silk, and other good things. Failing the desired good relations, Hongwu excluded Japan from the China-centered tribute system. It is obvious that national security, rather than ceremony and trade, was the primary element of Northeast Asian diplomacy at the time. There are still some misunderstandings of the historical realities of the topic. Therefore, it is very necessary to reassess the tributary system model by exploring the special diplomatic relations between China and Japan during the early Ming dynasty.