Toxicity interaction of polystyrene nanoplastics with sulfamethoxazole on the microalgae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii: A closer look at effect of light availability

Abstract

The coexistence of nanoplastics and antibiotics in the aquatic environment has raised a complicated risk for ecosystems and human health. How the environmental factors e.g., light, regulate the interaction between nanoplastics and antibiotics and the resulting combined toxicity is poorly understood. Here, we investigated the individual and combined toxicity of polystyrene nanoplastics (nPS, 100 mg L1) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX, 2.5 and 10 mg L−1) toward the microalgae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii under low (LL, 16 μmol m−2·s−1), normal (NL, 40 μmol m−2·s−1), and high light (HL, 150 μmol m−2·s−1) in terms of cellular responses. Results indicated that the joint toxicity of nPS and SMX commonly exhibited a strong antagonistic/mitigative effect under LL/NL at 24 h, and under NL at 72 h. nPS could adsorb more SMX under LL/NL at 24 h (1.90/1.33 mg g−1) and under NL at 72 h (1.01 mg g−1), thereby alleviating SMX toxicity to C. reinhardtii. However, the self-toxicity of nPS had a negative influence on the degree of antagonism between nPS and SMX. The experimental results coupled with computational chemistry further revealed that the adsorption capacity of SMX on nPS was stimulated by low pH under LL/NL at 24 h (∼7.5), while by less co-existing saline ions (0.83 ppt) and algae-derived dissolved organic matter (9.04 mg L−1) under NL at 72 h. nPS toxicity that was responsible for the toxic action modes was mainly attributed to the shading effect induced by hetero-aggregation and hindrance of light transmittance (>60%), as well as being regulated by additives leaching (0.49–1.07 mg L−1) and oxidative stress. Overall, these findings provided a critical basis for the risk assessment and management of multiple pollutants in the complex natural environment.