Toxicity and related molecular mechanisms of Sb(III) in the embryos and larvae of zebrafish (Danio rerio)

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Antimony (Sb) pollution poses a severe threat to humans and ecosystems due to the extensive use of Sb in various fields. However, little is known about the toxic effects of Sb and its aquatic ecotoxicological mechanism. This study aimed to reveal the toxicity and related molecular mechanisms of trivalent Sb (Sb(III)) in zebrafish embryos/larvae. Sb(III) accumulated in larvae, which correlated with the exposure concentration. Although no significant lethal or teratogenic effects were observed, normal growth and development were affected. Exposure to 10 or 20 mg/L Sb(III) increased the levels of reactive oxygen species in the larvae while enhancing catalase activity and increasing cell apoptosis. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that Sb(III) promoted glutathione metabolism and the ferroptosis pathway. In addition, symptoms associated with ferroptosis, including mitochondrial damage, biochemical levels of related molecules and increased tissue iron content, were detected. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analyses further confirmed that Sb(III) significantly altered the transcription levels of genes related to the ferroptosis pathway by disrupting iron homeostasis. Furthermore, ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1) mitigated the toxic effects induced by Sb(III) in zebrafish. Our research fills the gap in the literature on the toxicity and mechanism of Sb(III) in aquatic organisms, which is highly important for understanding the ecological risks associated with Sb.