Towards a theoretical framework for the management of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in Swaziland: A review

Opportunities for REDD+ to minimise forest carbon emissions and mitigate climate change in Southeast Asia

Traditional forest management systems were part of daily life in the natural forest and woodland resources in olden days Swaziland. The objective of the study was to embark on community consultations to collect information on their perception of preferred edible and medicinal non-timber forest products (NTFPs), their direct uses, the existing management strategies, the threats to forest biodiversity and the domestication and commercialization initiatives. Group discussions, individual perceptions and review of national forest policy were undertaken. The findings indicated that local communities lack knowledge of the existing policies and legislation that safeguard the sustainable use of NTFPs in the adjacent natural forests and woodlands, and further stated that there are no existing traditional local-level NTFP management systems. Uncontrolled trade in NTFPs, by non-resident collectors in Swaziland has been seen to be one of the predominant threats to forest biodiversity. This reaffirms the weak and ineffective national policies and legislation, and shows that the existing policies and legislation are not implementable. The positive side is that local communities have identified potential threats to forest biodiversity. All communities are willing to participate in the conservation and sustainable use of the adjacent natural forests and woodlands. Most local communities already have initiatives towards selection of top priority species for domestication and commercialization. The institutional, cultural, socio-economic, ecological/environmental and policy issues raised by local communities are crucial and essential elements for the formulation and development of guidelines for local-level sustainable management and development of NTFPs. Proper and innovative policies and legislation need to be put in place to cope with the current challenges. Key words: Natural forests, natural woodlands, forest products, sustainability, national forest policies, forest management, community participation, forest biodiversity.

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) farming is emerging globally as an important tool for establishing sustainable forest communities and supporting forest-based livelihoods. NTFPs are of great importance to millions of people whose livelihoods largely depend on them. Increasingly, forest policies of many countries are being revised to reflect the potential of NTFPs in achieving rural development and poverty alleviation. In Ghana, various forest policies have been formulated and implemented for developing a national forest estate and timber industry. However, most of the forest policies have failed to address the role of NTFPs in achieving poverty reduction in the country. Forest policies continue to remain a major hurdle to the growth and development of NTFP in Ghana.Through an exhaustive literature review, interviews conducted on various forest development stakeholders, forestry experts and forest dependent communities, this paper uses sustainability frameworks to critically evaluate Ghana’s forestry policies and their impacts on NTFPs utilisation and management in Ghana. The 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy (FWP-94) and its implementation process from 1995 to 2008 were analyzed with regard to the development of NTFPs and a number of challenges facing this sub-sector identified. The results revealed that the lack of definite policy on NTFPs has impacted negatively on their promotion and development in the country. Until recently, most of the policy initiatives were aimed at forest conservation and timber production; the livelihood opportunities of NTFPs for local communities were ignored. The paper also urges government of Ghana to effectively place development and promotion of NTFPs farming as core element of the country’s forestry policy-making process and national development agenda.

Context Tropical regions have exceptional biodiversity and serve as invaluable sources of natural resources, particularly wood (Krainovic et al. 2025). The vast array of tree species in these forests results in significant variations in wood properties, including colour, density, biological durability, hardness, and mechanical strength (Bessa et al. 2023). These diverse characteristics make tropical wood highly versatile, offering numerous applications in construction, manufacturing, chemicals, energy, and beyond. In this context, tropical forests supply some of the most sought-after wood species in the global market, prized for their aesthetic appeal, mechanical properties, and long-term durability – qualities that enhance their commercial value (Richardson et al. 2023). The abundance of forests in tropical regions ensures that wood remains accessible to both urban and rural populations. For centuries, it has been a primary material for construction and cooking fuel, particularly in lower-income areas where alternative materials are scarce or prohibitively expensive (Pipa and Doug 2014). The widespread reliance on wood has led to overexploitation, driven by unsustainable harvesting practices that jeopardise the long-term health of these forests. A significant consequence of this heavy dependence on wood is the alarming rate of deforestation (FAO 2022), which is further exacerbated by illegal logging activities. The unlawful extraction of valuable timber species not only accelerates forest degradation but also undermines attempts to enact legal and sustainable management strategies (Pan et al. 2024). Addressing these challenges requires a strong commitment to research and innovation aimed at promoting the sustainable utilisation of tropical forest resources. Achieving a balance between forest resources demand and forest conservation is essential for ensuring the viability of these ecosystems for future generations. Emphasising technological advancements, enhancing resource efficiency, and adopting responsible forestry practices can help mitigate environmental impacts while creating economic opportunities for local communities. By integrating sustainability into forest management strategies, a harmonious relationship between economic development and long-term ecological preservation can be achieved. In this sense, the primary objective of the International Conference on Tropical Wood (ICTW 2024) conference was to facilitate the exchange of knowledge and best practices that integrate the productive utilisation of wood with the sustainable use of tropical forest resources. The target audience was professors, researchers, students, ministries, and industry professionals. The event aimed to inspire further research and innovations that would enable tropical forests to meet human needs while maintaining the integrity of these vital ecosystems. This conference was organized by the IUFRO (International Union of Forest Research Organizations), in collaboration with the École Supérieure des Sciences Agronomiques and its local academic and institutional partners. As described in figure 1, the conference addressed four main themes: (i) Tropical wood identification and traceability; (ii) Wood usage in construction across tropical countries; (iii) Wood energy in tropical countries; and (iv) Tropical non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Organisation and objectives of the International Conference on Tropical Wood (ICTW 2024) The ICTW 2024 conference was scheduled from the 26th to the 28th of August 2024 in Antananarivo, the capital of Madagascar. It included invited keynotes, voluntary papers, round-table discussions, and field visits. The language of the conference and its publications was English. The conference was organised by the Research Group 5.01.00 “Wood and Fibre Quality” of the IUFRO (International Union of Forest Research Organizations), in collaboration with the École Supérieure des Sciences Agronomiques and the École Supérieure Polytechnique d’Antananarivo of the University of Antananarivo, the École Supérieure Polytechnique d’Antsiranana of the University of Antsiranana, the Institut Supérieur de Technologie Antananarivo, the Centre National de Formation des Techniciens Forestiers Angavokely, and the University of Edinburgh, under the patronage of the Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research and the Minister of Environment and Sustainable Development. The conference was attended by 106 people (figure 2) from 10 countries, including 4 invited keynotes, 60 voluntary papers and posters, a round-table discussion with local industries and ministries, and a field visit to Mandraka Saha Maintsoanala community forest, approximately 60 km from the capital (figure 3). All presentations were held live and on-site. The scientific program committee believes the selected articles provide a comprehensive overview of the conference’s four following themes: Tropical wood identification and traceability Accurate identification of wood species is essential for sustainable logging practices, as it helps ensure that only specific tree species are harvested, leaving others untouched to preserve biodiversity (Dormontt et al. 2015). Additionally, wood identification is crucial for tracking products along the supply chain, ensuring they are sourced from legal and sustainable origins (Raobelina et al. 2023; Tonouéwa et al. 2024). This session highlighted recent advancements in wood identification methods and traceability systems, focusing on the development of databases and technologies that can support these practices (figure 4). By enhancing wood identification, the industry can better manage resources and improve the sustainability of wood supply chains. Wood usage in construction across tropical countries Wood is widely used in construction across tropical regions, particularly in rural areas where access to other materials is limited. While some examples of tropical wood used in modern multi-story buildings exist (Murphy and Smallwood 2024), most constructions are still traditional, often using wood inefficiently or inadequately (Taleb et al. 2023). The choice of wood species and construction methods is influenced by factors such as material availability, cultural traditions, technical knowledge, and economic considerations. This session discussed the challenges and opportunities related to using wood sustainably in construction, particularly in tropical climates. Key topics included designing wood-based structures suitable for high humidity, heavy rainfall, termites, and other climate-related challenges, as well as improving wood preservation techniques and exploring alternative materials such as bamboo. Wood energy in tropical countries In many tropical countries, firewood and charcoal remain the primary sources of energy for cooking, particularly in rural areas where access to modern energy is limited. This widespread use of traditional fuels contributes significantly to deforestation (Randriamalala et al. 2017; Sedano et al. 2021). To address this, it is essential to improve technologies that reduce reliance on wood-based fuels and promote the use of alternative energy sources. This session focused on innovations in carbonisation techniques, the use of improved cookstoves, improvements in wood energy conversion technologies, and the exploration of alternative fuels such as green charcoal. It also discussed strategies for enhancing wood energy production through sustainable plantation management. Tropical non-timber forest products (NTFPs) Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) have become increasingly important in tropical economies, as they offer an alternative to timber and contribute to the livelihoods of local populations (Ramananantoandro et al. 2013; Shackleton and de Vos 2022). This session focused on the latest advancements in the processing and commercialisation of NTFPs. By creating value-added products from these resources, NTFPs can provide financial benefits to communities while reducing pressure on timber resources. Presentations covered a wide range of NTFPs (essential oils, barks, resins, fruits, and more) and their applications in industries such as pharmaceuticals, food, and chemicals, highlighting their potential for both sustainable forest management and economic development. Strong relationship with the Research Group “Wood and Fibre Quality” of the IUFRO The IUFRO is a global network of forest scientists and researchers focused on advancing knowledge and research related to forests, trees, and their sustainable management. Established in 1892, the IUFRO aims to foster international cooperation among forestry researchers and institutions, promote scientific knowledge, and support the development of sustainable forest management practices worldwide. The IUFRO brings together a wide range of forest-related research disciplines, from ecology to economics, and engages in initiatives that address global challenges such as climate change, biodiversity conservation, and forest health. It organises conferences, workshops, and collaborates with governments, organisations, and stakeholders in the forestry sector to promote evidence-based policy and practices. The organisation’s activities are structured around research groups and working parties that focus on specific areas of forest science, such as wood quality, forest restoration, forest carbon dynamics, and more. Through this collaboration, the IUFRO contributes to global forest sustainability by sharing knowledge and research findings, and fostering innovation in forest science. The Research Group “Wood and Fibre Quality” of the IUFRO, part of the conference organisers, is dedicated to exploring various aspects of wood science, from its formation and structure to its processing and end-use properties. This group aims to deepen the understanding of the fundamental characteristics of wood, which are crucial for its sustainable utilisation. Through research on how environmental conditions, silvicultural practices, and genetics affect wood properties, the group seeks to improve wood and fibre quality for a wide range of applications. The group sponsors regional and international events, including technical meetings, training sessions, workshops, and symposia, which foster communication and collaboration among global experts. The goal of these activities is to share the latest developments in wood science and enhance the quality of research across borders. The Research Group currently has five Working Parties: Wood quality modelling Tree-ring analysis Understanding wood variability Non-destructive evaluation of wood and wood-based materials Fundamental properties of wood and woodbased materials ICTW conference papers published in Bois et Forêts des Tropiques The journal Bois et Forêts des Tropiques (BFT) from the CIRAD publisher was a partner of the conference by being a member of its Scientific Committee. This partnership offers an opportunity to publish a full-length manuscript in a special issue of the Bois et Forêts de Tropiques journal, showcasing notable contributions presented during the conference. Articles in the framework of this special issue will be continuously published in the form of dossiers, inserting them in the table of contents of each following issue. They will be identified with the conference logos. The first article from the ICTW is included in this present issue (BFT N° 361). The article from Ramilison et al. (2024) (figure 5) deals with a comparative analysis of charcoal produced by three carbonisation methods in Madagascar. This research is issued from a PhD thesis work (doctoral student and his supervisors), representing a great example of the ICTW scientific theme “Wood energy in tropical countries”. Acknowledgments The authors thank the ForesTIA project funded by the UK Royal Academy of Engineering, the journal Bois et Forêts des Tropiques published by CIRAD, Global Biodiversity Framework Implementation / Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH Madagascar, the #DigitAg project supported by a public grant overseen by the French National Research Agency (ANR) as part of the “Investissements d’avenir” program (ANR-16-CONV-0004), DP Forêts & Biodiversité, Groupe de Recherche (GDR) Sciences du Bois, G3D2 project funded by the Delegation of the European Union to the Republic of Madagascar and the Union of the Comoros, Biodev Consulting Madagascar, ACEP Madagascar S.A., TELMA Madagascar, Hazovato, Les Scieries du Betsileo, and Tropical Wood, for their support in organizing the conference.

Non timber forest products (NTFP) are emerging globally as a tool for the establishment of sustainable forest communities. They provide employment to various sectors of society, draw on local expertise and culture, and increase the outputs of forests. In recent years, NTFP have received accrued interest by the general public, governments and the private sectors of Canada. However, for the NTFP industry to enter mainstream Canadian industrial culture it is now critical to attempt the integration of the timber industry with the NTFP industry to benefit both sectors. NTFP can be harvested from four types of environment: wild stocks from timber-productive forests, wild stocks from non-timber-productive forests or lands, managed stocks from intensively managed forests, and domesticated stocks from agricultural systems. A large body of evidence suggests that NTFP management and harvest can serve the forest industry in many ways. There are four possible types of interaction between the NTFP and timber industries: independent resource use, competition for resources, complementary resource use and symbiotic resource use. Integration of both industries in a sustainable manner will need to be supported with research that address economic, social, policy and ecological questions. Key words: NTFP, sustainability, biodiversity, community forestry

Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are significant outcome of forest products and these are harvested by tribes for their livelihood needs. Some of the NTFPs are fruits, seeds, medicinal and aromatic plants, resins, honey, gum, bamboos and canes. NTFP is extracted from natural forests and mix of forest-based agricultural fields. NTFP product has both rural and urban market linkages. The collectors faced problems in marketing of NTFPs because of underdeveloped markets. Management of NTFPs means both the conservation of forest with relatively good biodiversity impacts. Social networks could help bridge the tribe's livelihood support and conservation of forests through compliment efforts to improve the functions of NTFP management and marketing. NTFPs in rural livelihoods are key for any development policy to respond to the needs of local people. A review of the NTFP management suggests that asynchronous networking via modern technologies would be a better option for both livelihood and conservation.

The objective of this study was to investigate the diversity of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) and their source species in Menagesha Suba Forest. Data were collected and analyzed from 57 and 285 circular main plots of 400 m 2 and sub-plots of 1 m 2 areas, respectively. Information on the types of NTFPs extracted from the forest was obtained from a socio-economic survey that involved 123 randomly selected households from six Peasant Associations (PAs) nearby the forest. A total of 142 plant species belonging to 56 families were recorded in the forest, and 59 of them were identified to offer NTFPs of one type or another. Nine different types of NTFPs are extracted today from the forest and these include traditional medicine, household utensil, honey and bees-wax, fuelwood, farm implement, animal fodder, edible forest products, smoke wood, and flavoring and spices. The diversity, density and relative abundance of NTFPs’ bearing plants varied depending on the type of NTFP under consideration. In conclusion, Menagesha Suba Forest hosts rich diversity of plant species that offer diverse NTFPs. This richness with NTFPs resource can be used as an opportunity to device alternative strategy for the sustainable management of the forest by involving and allowing the local community to utilize the NTFPs resources rather than for destructive uses like timber harvest or conversion to other forms of land use. The incentive from NTFPs utilization could contribute to sustainable livelihoods of the local communities, which if realized, can win their interest for better conservation and development of the Forest. Keywords/phrases: Diversity, Density, Forest conservation, NTFPs, Menagesha Suba Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci ., 9(1): 11-34, 2010

Stratégies villageoises pour la gestion des paysages forestiers du Menabe Central, Madagascar

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are biological resources of plant and animal origin, harvested from natural forests, manmade plantations, wooded land, farmlands, and trees outside forests and or domesticated. These products are vital sources of income, nutrition and sustenance for many forest-based communities around the world. This paper tries to review available and accessible literatures on role of NTFPs in sustainable forest management and its implication on carbon storage and Biodiversity conservation in case of Ethiopia. Including Sociological Approach, Economic Approach, Ecosystem Approach, Technological Approach and its related services (biodiversity conservation and carbon sequestration). The use of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) has received attention in light of their Perceived potential to address both poverty reduction and tropical forest conservation. Moreover, management of NTFPs, factors that hamper sustainable managements of NTFPs. It was suggested that better management and utilization method has to be set for diversifying products benefit for the local community.

This study reviews the economic and ecological roles of Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) sustainability in Nigeria. Systematic review method was adopted for the study. The relationship between NTFPs trade, ecological conversation, socioeconomic benefits, poverty alleviation and sustainable forest management practice was carefully assessed. It was revealed that the NTFPs’ huge prospect and potential impact on the Nigeria economy largely depends on the ecological conditions, access to market, commercialization, value addition, its collection methods and utilization within and outside Nigeria. In addition, the review indicated that rural areas remain the hub for NTFPs trade and forest communities largely depend on it for their household income and livelihood. However, NTFPs could serve as a poverty trap for locals if the commercialization and value addition are not prioritized . In conclusion, this review underscores that the extent to which NTFPs can impact the economy cannot be fully studied unless those in the informal sector are well captured. In essence, NTFPs could serve as the key to unlock the economic growth of Nigeria through its huge revenue potential. Hence, the need for organizational, institutional and legal reforms that addresses the concerns of sustainable forest and NTFPs management within the ecosystem to achieve economic growth.

This study assesses the financial value of one hectare of savannah vegetation in Sudanian region of West Africa based on the potential extraction of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). Our methodology provides multiple estimations of NTFPs production from each species for two years and also takes into account variation in NTFPs prices. Given the regeneration capacity of harvested species for some NTFPs such as bark or root, we presented the annual financial value of revenue from NTFPs in contrary to some studies which determined their net present value. Results showed that the Net Annual Value of NTFPs collection is US$368 ha-1 and would justify the interest of sustainable use of these resources. The most valuable products of the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve savannah were species leaves (US$164 ha-1) followed by fruits (US$89 ha-1) and roots (US$78 ha-1). However, the Net Annual Value determined here is the potential value of the Sudanian savannah in NTFPs. The NTFPs financial valuation made in this study provided a useful details for comparing alternative land use practices. In view of the sustainable use of natural resources, a NTFP focused management system could be considered economically viable management option. However, they cannot be sustainability harvested in absence of careful species selection, yield studies, monitoring of regeneration and harvesting adjustments. Therefore, there is a need to know more about useful species availability, biology and reaction to harvesting impact, especially for those exploited for their roots, flowers or fruits.

Non-timber forest products (NTFP) are emerging globally as a tool for the establishment of sustainable forest communities. They provide employment to various sectors of society, draw on local expertise and culture, and increase the outputs of forests. In recent years, NTFP have received accrued interest by the general public, governments and the private sectors of Canada. However, for the NTFP industry to enter mainstream Canadian industrial culture it is now critical to attempt the integration of the timber industry with the NTFP industry to benefit both sectors. NTFP can be harvested from four types of environment: wild stocks from timber-productive forests, wild stocks from non-timber-productive forests or lands, managed stocks from intensively managed forests, and domesticated stocks from agricultural systems. A large body of evidence suggests that NTFP management and harvest can serve the forest industry in many ways. There are four possible types of interaction between the NTFP and timber industries: independent resource use, competition for resources, complementary resource use and symbiotic resource use. Integration of both industries in a sustainable manner will need to be supported with research that address economic, social, policy and ecological questions. Key words: NTFP, sustainability, biodiversity, community forestry

The Value of Non- Timber Forest Products in Zambia: Indirect and Non- Use Benefits

The significant role of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) cannot be over emphasized in nation building. Despite the tremendous benefits derived from the NTFPs in supporting the rural dwellers financially, it is perceived as less important to national development especially in developing countries. This study analyzed the economic benefits of non-timber forest products in Oluwa forest reserve, Ondo State with a view to encouraging sustainable forest management. Purposive and random sampling were used to select 213 respondents for the study. Descriptive statistics and the budgetary techniques analyses were used for the study. Results indicated that majority of the respondents were male (56.10%), 30.00% were between the age of 30-39 years, 78.10% were married, 55.90% had household size between 1-5 people and 47.10% had secondary education. Major non-timber forest products identified in the study area include; wrapping leaves (23.20%), fuel wood (22.60%), bush meat (14.80%), snails (9.70%) and wild fruits (7.70%). The study showed that respondents used more of wrapping leaves and fuel wood with average ranking of 0.84 and 0.83 respectively. The result showed a positive profit (₦20,700.00) for wrapping leaf business and returns ₦1.80k for every ₦1 invested. The study calls for sustainable forest management of non-timber forest products to be taken up as a developmental strategy in the study area.
 Key words: NTFPs, Oluwa forest reserve, rural dwellers, sustainable forest management, wrapping leaves

The Chinese Government is committed to forest certification as a market-based instrument to promote sustainable forest management. Forest certification includes a number of regulations, rules and policy paradigms related to certification and there are numerous challenges facing the uptake of forest certification in China. In particular, the ban on commercial logging in natural forests implemented by the Natural Forest Protection Program has resulted in little demand for forest certification of natural forest management units. However, there are also certification opportunities, such as the certification of non-timber forest products that benefit local communities who depend on forests for the goods and services they provide. This paper provides an overview of progress in forest certification in China, including its development history, organizational structure, scheme documents, certification scopes and standards, accreditation, certification bodies and auditors, and certification logos. The paper also focuses on government support for the supervision and management of forest certification through policy incentives, including the potential government procurement and subsidy policies for certified forest products. Finally, the paper analyzes certified non-timber forest products as an example of the value of certification to promote sustainable forest management and how the concept of forest certification can be used to add value to forests and ensure they are responsibly and sustainably managed. In general, forest certification in China has a clear role in sustainable forest management, both for timber and non-timber forest products.