Toward Quality Research in Counseling Psychology

Multilevel modeling (MLM) is rapidly becoming the standard method of analyzing nested data, for example, data from students within multiple schools, data on multiple clients seen by a smaller number of therapists, and even longitudinal data. Although MLM analyses are likely to increase in frequency in counseling psychology research, many readers of counseling psychology journals have had only limited exposure to MLM concepts. This paper provides an overview of MLM that blends mathematical concepts with examples drawn from counseling psychology. This tutorial is intended to be a first step in learning about MLM; readers are referred to other sources for more advanced explorations of MLM. In addition to being a tutorial for understanding and perhaps even conducting MLM analyses, this paper reviews recent research in counseling psychology that has adopted a multilevel framework, and it provides ideas for MLM approaches to future research in counseling psychology.

The modern civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s radically transformed practice and research in applied psychology, at least in terms of its understanding of race and racism. Rapid changes in psychology generally and in counseling psychology specifically occurred on the coattails of the Black, Brown, and women power activities during the volatile years of the late 1960s and early 1970s (Carter, 2005; Heppner, Casas, Carter, & Stone, 2000). During this time we witnessed the formation of organizations to attend to the professional concerns of racial and ethnic minority psychologists (e.g., the Association of Black Psychologists, Asian American Psychological Association, Association of Psychologists Por La Raza, Division 45 of the American Psychological Association, now known as the Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues, etc.), the establishment of internal structures in the American Psychology Association to confront issues of race and racism within the organization and the profession (e.g., Committee on Ethnic Minority Affairs), and the creation of journals designed to publish psychological research related to the experiences of racial minorities (e.g., Journal of Black Psychology and Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development [formerly known as the Journal of NonWhite Concerns]). The field of counseling psychology began to examine issues of race and eventually racism in training, research, and practice within this context. More than three decades ago, psychologists initiated dialogue in counseling psychology journals about the role of race in the counseling process (e.g., Vontress, 1971). Since that time, several productive lines of investigation have appeared in counseling journals, including the influence of racial identity attitudes on the counseling process (e.g., Constantine, 2002; Parham & Helms, 1981), racial issues in counseling interactions (e.g., Thompson &

Fordham University-Lincoln CenterWe are pleased to present this special issue of the Journal ofCounseling Psychology (JCP ) on qualitative and mixed methodsresearch. The major goal of the special issue is to introduce avariety of qualitative and mixed methods approaches to counselingpsychologists and to encourage their increased application in re-search. Qualitative and mixed methods have been underutilized incounseling research, as most counseling psychologists weretrained in the postpositivist research paradigm and associatedquantitative methods (McLeod, 2001; Morrow & Smith, 2000).However, the debate over the credibility of qualitative methods hasbegun to shift toward greater acceptance of such designs (Camic,Rhodes, & Yardley, 2003). We welcome these signs of change.Our position as guest editors, and the position of the many authorscontributing to this special issue, is that the field of counselingpsychology will be enhanced significantly by the increased use ofqualitative and mixed methods research designs rooted in diversephilosophical paradigms.Though counseling psychologists have long endorsed the con-cept of methodological pluralism and have made repeated calls forincreased openness to qualitative research (e.g., Hoshmand, 1989;Howard, 1983; Kopala & Suzuki, 1999; Polkinghorne, 1984), thefield has been slow to expand the research paradigms from whichit operates and the research methodologies it uses (McLeod, 2001).At present, only a minority of published research in psychology,including counseling psychology, is qualitative in nature (Rennie,Watson, & Monteiro, 2002), and only 10% of U.S.-based counsel-ing psychology training programs require a qualitative researchcourse of its doctoral students (Ponterotto, 2005). Gergen (2001)has expressed concern that our reluctance to engage in a postmod-ern dialogue has resulted in a conception of psychological sciencethat is “historically frozen and is endangered by its isolation fromthe major intellectual and global transformations of the past halfcentury” (p. 803).McMullen (2002) has also described the lack of dialogue be-tween proponents of quantitative and qualitative methods. She hasexpressed concern that we are at risk of bifurcation in appliedpsychological research between researchers conversant with alter-native paradigms and their associated ontological and epistemo-logical bases and those who remain grounded within the traditionalmethodologies, with little interest in or knowledge of alternativemethodologies. The risks of such bifurcation are not insignificant;they involve more than a debate over a defensible choice for one’sown research. As McMullen pointed out,

Structural equation modeling (SEM) has become increasingly popular for analyzing data in the social sciences, although several broad reviews of psychology journals suggest that many SEM researchers engage in questionable practices when using the technique. The purpose of this study is to review and critique the use of SEM in counseling psychology research regarding several of these questionable practices. One hundred five studies from 99 separate articles published in the Journal of Counseling Psychology between 1987 and 2003 were reviewed. Results of the review indicate that many counseling psychology studies do not engage in various best practices recommended by SEM experts (e.g., testing multiple a priori theoretical models or reporting all parameter estimates or effect sizes). Results also indicate that SEM practices in counseling psychology seem to be improving in some areas, whereas in other areas no improvements were noted over time. Implications of these results are discussed, and suggestions for SEM use within counseling psychology are provided.

Reports an error in "The shape of knowledge: Situational analysis in counseling psychology research" by Patrick R. Grzanka (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 2021[Apr], Vol 68[3], 316-330). The article included a production error. An incorrect Figure 3 was published. The online version of this article has been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2020-51960-001.) Situational analysis (SA) is a powerful method for visually mapping qualitative data. As an extension of constructivist grounded theory developed by Charmaz and others, Clarke's situational analysis encourages researchers to transform qualitative data into various visual maps that can illuminate dynamics that may be obscured by more traditional analytic approaches. Fifteen years since Fassinger's landmark article on grounded theory in counseling psychology research, I make an argument for SA's potential uses in counseling psychology using data from a mixed-methods dissertation on White racial affect. I outline the exigency of SA and its epistemological and methodological underpinnings in detail, with a focus on SA as a critical, structural analysis. Each primary mapping procedure-situational, positional, and social worlds/arenas maps-is introduced and examples are provided that illustrate SA's unique analytic capacities and insights. By way of SA, I argue for a "critical-cartographic" turn in counseling psychology along four axes: promoting systems-level research and advocacy, deepening consideration of intersectionality, cultivating alternative epistemologies beyond post-positivism, and invigorating qualitative research on counseling and psychotherapy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The present study explored the psychotherapy goals of two spirit, trans, and nonbinary Black and Brown clients of color prior to beginning therapy with two spirit, trans, and nonbinary Black and Brown therapists of color. Fifty-one participants (M = 28.24 years) were interviewed about their therapy goals prior to a 15-session intervention integrating the psychological framework of radical healing and strategies addressing internalized racism and transnegativity. Thematic analysis revealed five primary themes: (a) accessing and embracing authentic self, (b) addressing mental health symptoms and learning adaptive intrapersonal coping skills, (c) healing from trauma, (d) cultivating healthy relationships and a sense of belonging, and (e) gaining a corrective and positive experience in therapy. The findings show a range of therapeutic goals that two spirit, trans, and nonbinary Black and Brown clients of color desire to address in culturally responsive therapy, underscoring the importance of mental health care that acknowledges how their intersecting identities shape their needs and experiences. We provide implications for practice, training, and future research in counseling psychology. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Counseling psychologists are a cogent fit to lead the movement toward a sex-positive professional psychology (Burnes et al., 2017a). Though centralizing training in human sexuality (HS; Mollen & Abbott, 2021) and sexual and reproductive health (Grzanka & Frantell, 2017) is congruent with counseling psychologists' values, training programs rarely require or integrate comprehensive sexuality training for their students (Mollen et al., 2020). We employed a critical mixed-methods design in the interest of centering the missing voices of doctoral-level graduate students in counseling psychology in the discussion of the importance of human sexuality competence for counseling psychologists. Using focus groups to ascertain students' perspectives on their human sexuality training (HST) in counseling psychology, responses yielded five themes: (a) HST is integral to counseling psychology training, (b) few opportunities to gain human sexuality competence, (c) inconsistent training and self-directed learning, (d) varying levels of human sexuality comfort and competence, and (e) desire for integration of HST. Survey responses suggested students were trained on the vast majority of human sexuality topics at low levels, consistent with prior studies surveying training directors in counseling psychology and at internship training sites (Abbott et al., 2021; Mollen et al., 2020). Taken together, results suggested students see HST as aligned with the social justice emphasis in counseling psychology but found their current training was inconsistent, incidental rather than intentional, and lacked depth. Recommendations, contextualized within counseling psychology values, are offered to increase opportunities for and strengthen HST in counseling psychology training programs. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Beginning with calls for methodological diversity in counseling psychology, this article addresses the history and current state of qualitative research in counseling psychology. It identifies the historical and disciplinary origins as well as basic assumptions and underpinnings of qualitative research in general, as well as within counseling psychology. It identifies the foundational elements of qualitative research, including its purposes and goals, paradigmatic bases, and underlying characteristics. Finally, it locates qualitative research in counseling psychology in the research genre and explores the promise that this form of research holds for counseling and psychotherapy research as well as counseling psychology's multicultural and social justice agenda.

In recent years, many counseling psychology training programs in the United States have adopted social justice principles into training. Although previous studies have provided thought-provoking discussions on social justice advocacy, they mostly reflected the voices of psychologists in academia; therefore, the advocacy work of practitioners has been neglected. In order to explore the advocacy experiences of counseling psychologists in practice, we utilized qualitative content analysis to analyze semistructured interviews with 11 practitioners who were trained in social justice-oriented counseling psychology doctoral programs. The findings were clustered under three domains: (a) participants’ development of a social justice orientation, (b) different ways of implementing advocacy in practice, and (c) positioning advocacy in psychology. The interviews depicted resources and challenges with regard to integrating advocacy into practice indicating that counseling psychologists continue to struggle with systemic barriers that limit their advocacy actions. We discuss implications for research, practice, and training in counseling psychology.

OVERVIEW. In this chapter, we examine how counseling psychology theory, practice, and research may be deconstructed and transformed to make them more relevant for the African context. “Deconstruction” refers to ways in which one can expand the limits of accepted conceptual meanings in counseling psychology and in the process show that those meanings are complex and unstable. The aim, in this chapter, is to deconstruct ideological biases and traditional assumptions that have influenced counseling psychology in African contexts. The chapter shows that in deconstructing traditional psychology, the need for transformation becomes an important imperative, that is, change in the nature of counseling psychology in African contexts, the counseling psychology community, its social institutions, the theories that influence the field, its research agendas, and its practice. LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of the chapter, the reader should be able to: Explain why it is necessary to transform counseling psychology for the African context. Discuss the hegemonic influences of counseling psychology theory and practices in Africa. Outline ways in which we can begin to make counseling psychology theory, practice, and training more relevant to the cultural–sociopolitical contexts in Africa. Suggest what can be considered relevant research for the discipline of counseling psychology in Africa. INTRODUCTION In African contexts, Western theories, concepts, and methods, which have emanated largely from high-income countries, still influence psychological science and practice, including counseling psychology, despite the fact that African scholars have over the years questioned their applicability and relevance (e.g., De la Rey & Ipser; 2004; Nsamensamg, 1995; Painter and Terre Blanche, 2004; Stead & Watson, 2006).

This article examines concepts of the trustworthiness, or credibility, of qualitative research. Following a “researcher-as-instrument,” or self-reflective, statement, the paradigmatic underpinnings of various criteria for judging the quality of qualitative research are explored, setting the stage for a discussion of more transcendent standards (those not associated with specific paradigms) for conducting quality research: social validity, subjectivity and reflexivity, adequacy of data, and adequacy of interpretation. Finally, current guidelines for writing and publishing qualitative research are reviewed, and strategies for conducting and writing qualitative research reports are suggested. Qualitative research, ensuing from a variety of disciplines, paradigms, and epistemologies, embraces multiple standards of quality, known variously as validity, credibility, rigor ,o rtrustworthiness. In addition to some standards that may be thought of as somewhat universal across disciplines and paradigms, the “goodness” (Morrow & Smith, 2000) of qualitative inquiry is assessed on the basis of the paradigmatic underpinnings of the research and the standards of the discipline. Thus, a grounded theory study or a consensual qualitative research investigation in counseling psychology that is rooted in a postpositivist or constructivist/interpretivist paradigm will look quite different from a critical ethnography in education; and the standards appropriate for evaluating these studies will vary accordingly. I begin this article by addressing the paradigmatic underpinnings of trustworthiness or rigor in qualitative research. Next, I discuss central topics related to trustworthiness or validity that span paradigms and may be thought of as relevant across most research designs. I then provide an overview of guidelines that have been suggested for evaluating qualitative research, particularly in psychology. Finally, I offer recommendations for enhancing the quality of qualitative research in counseling psychology and suggest strategies for writing and publishing. First, however, in keeping with the standard of reflexivity as a way for researchers to inform their audiences about their perspectives as well as to manage their subjectivities, I describe my own assumptions about qualitative research methodology and quality.

Prior research has indicated that relative to other specialty areas in psychology, counseling psychology researchers are less likely to engage in research activities sponsored by external funding agencies. The primary purposes of this article were to address external funding in the counseling psychology profession and to compare the rates of articles published in the premier counseling psychology research journal ( Journal of Counseling Psychology [ JCP]) that reported external funding to other specialty areas’ premier research journals. Between 2007 and 2011, articles in JCP were less likely than those in other journals to report external funding and less likely to report research designs associated with external sponsorship. Post hoc analyses indicated that articles in a leading vocational research journal also had relatively low rates of external funding, and counseling psychology faculty members were less likely than peers in other programs to report external funding. The implications of these findings for the field are discussed.

This Major Contribution, consisting of four articles, critically evaluates the status of training in counseling psychology, especially at the entry level, and offers a model for moving the field forward. In this first article, we provide a rationale for the contribution, laying the foundation for the subsequent three articles. Specifically, we ask the questions, Do training programs in counseling psychology produce the desired results? and Is the prevailing paradigm of training effective in developing counselor competence? Then we report on the research showing a disappointing relationship among training, experience, and expertise. We conclude by inviting the profession to engage in honest self-reflection about the status and future direction of training in counseling psychology.

Asian women in the United States (AWUS) are part of the most rapidly growing racial group in the United States today (Budiman & Ruiz, 2021). AWUS have a long history of facing unique challenges at the intersection of their race and gender (Mukkamala & Suyemoto, 2018). However, there is a gap in counseling psychology literature focused on AWUS (Kiang et al., 2016), leaving critical questions unanswered about their needs and experiences in the United States. This study examines the scope of this gap through a systematic content analysis of 3,913 articles published in the Journal of Counseling Psychology and The Counseling Psychologist between 2000 and 2020. The specific research questions were as follows: (1) How many articles in Journal of Counseling Psychology and The Counseling Psychologist include the demographically representative 3% of AWUS, based on 2020 census data, in their study sample? (2) Among these articles, what key qualitative themes emerge? (3) How many articles focused solely on AWUS experiences? We found that 137 (3.5%) articles included a demographically representative number of AWUS as part of their samples, while only 10 (0.26%) articles focused solely on AWUS. Results revealed five major themes: (a) factors and processes shaping the mental health of AWUS, (b) centrality of, and external influences on, the cultural identities of AWUS, (c) enhancing the efficacy of counseling for AWUS, (d) AWUS within scales assessing experiences of Asians in the United States, and (e) the professional identity and career aspirations of AWUS. Implications for research, practice, and training are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

This article advocates for the decolonization of counseling psychology through the lens and integration of restorative justice (RJ) practices. Counseling psychology professionals are urged to attend to interpersonal and structural harms inflicted upon marginalized communities by first assessing and deconstructing deep colonial underpinnings that have informed our understanding of psychological practice, while also committing to continuous movement toward re-indigenizing traditional healing practices and modalities. RJ prompts a shift from individualistic to structural perspectives which is crucial for remedying the deep-seated impacts of colonialism on well-being. In this article, we explore RJ’s potential in helping to amplify counseling psychology values centered toward social justice, collectivism, personal growth, accountability, repairing harm, and healing. While critically examining the discipline’s role in perpetuating colonial legacies, we assess how RJ principles align with the foundational values of counseling psychology and highlight ways to enhance structural competency perspectives, critical race, and liberation psychology scholarship. The article also provides recommendations on how to more deeply embed RJ principles in counseling psychology education, training, research, advocacy, and clinical practices. Embracing RJ within the profession can help to propel counseling psychology toward a more equitable and responsive profession that vigorously combats the pervasive effects of harm and social injustices.