To defend ourselves: common property management of forests in northern Thailand

Site requirements of the endangered rosewood Dalbergiaoliveri in a tropical deciduous forest in northern Thailand

Fire is prevalent in the dry deciduous forests of south-east Asia, the majority of fires being man-made (Stott 1988). In Thailand, the 10-19% estimated extent of annual burning of dry deciduous dipterocarp forest (1984-1986 data on total estimated area burned each year; Settarak et al. 1987) is thought to be a severe under-estimate (Kanjanavanit 1992). The interaction of fire and termites is poorly known for Asian ecosystems, but African studies show they have complementary roles in the removal of wood and leaf litter (Collins 1981, Trapnell et al. 1976). Termites are the dominant arthropod decomposers in tropical forests (Collins 1983) and savannas (Collins 1981, Holt 1987), and are important mediators of carbon flux (Jones 1990, Lawton et al. 1996). Furthermore, these functions are dependent on the species assemblage structure of the termite community (Lawton et al. 1996). To date, the only study of the effects of fire on termite species richness and abundance is from Australia (Abensperg-Traun & Milewski 1995). Here, a preliminary survey of species richness of termites in fireprotected and fire-prone deciduous forest in northern Thailand is presented. The study suggests that the fungus-growing Macrotermitinae have a greater species richness, under certain seasonal fire regimes, compared to those in areas under complete fire protection. Species richness estimates were made for two dry deciduous dipterocarp forest sites: A, fire-protected and; B, unprotected, fire-prone, in Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, near Chiang Mai, northern Thailand. Site A covered a 10 ha

In this chapter, I assess the view that every person shares in a common property right to the Earth's atmosphere. This view is advocated by some environmental non-governmental organizations, which take it as the philosophical basis of the claim that every person has an equal entitlement to emit CO 2 . For the sake of simplicity I shall limit my focus in this chapter to CO 2 emissions without assuming that CO 2 is the only important greenhouse gas. The common atmospheric property rights view has received little careful scrutiny in the emerging philosophical debate on climate change and justice. I hope to contribute to remedying that. In the next section, I discuss the relationship between the common atmospheric property rights view and three different traditions of liberalism that take rights seriously. I argue that the view is plausibly entailed by two versions of Lockean (libertarian) liberalism. Common property rights in the atmosphere have a weaker foundation in egalitarian liberalism despite the endorsement of an equal entitlement to emit CO 2 by some egalitarian liberals. I then argue that the common atmospheric property rights claim is prima facie consistent with egalitarian liberalism. The second section takes up CO 2 emissions and intergenerational justice. It argues that avoiding intergenerational injustice, as understood according to the common atmospheric property rights view, requires either institutions that enforce emissions limits at a rate which is less than what the climate system can absorb without creating perturbations in the climate system or institutions that make appropriate compensatory intergenerational transfers for the failure to limit emissions sufficiently.

The species diversity of ground ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) in a section of mixed deciduous and dry dipterocarp forests within the Sri Nan National Park, northern Thailand was investigated using hand collecting, leaf litter sifting, and pitfall traps. A total of 121 species belonging to 41 genera in 7 subfamilies was recorded. Thirteen species were recorded in the richest genus Camponotus. From the pitfall trap data, the means of ant species diversity indices in the mixed deciduous forest were significantly higher than those in dry dipterocarp forest (p≤0.05) in both the winter and summer (but not the rainy season), whilst the mean ant dominance indices were not significantly different between the mixed deciduous and dry dipterocarp forests in the summer and rainy seasons (p≤0.05). However, the mean dominance index was significantly higher in dry dipterocarp forest in winter than that in the mixed deciduous forest (p≤0.05). Anoplolepis gracilipes (Fr. Smith, 1857), an exotic species, and Odontoponera denticulata (Fr. Smith, 1858) were the most frequently found species in both forest areas. In summer, pitfall trap data indicated that the populations of both species were significantly higher in the mixed deciduous forest than in the dry dipterocarp forest (p≤0.05), but in the winter, Anoplolepis gracilipes populations were not statistically different between the two forests. The implication for using some ant species as bioindicators in each forest type as well as sampling methodology is discussed.

Fire is a necessary disturbance in tropical deciduous forests, as it helps clear the understory community and allows regeneration of grasses and forbs for local wildlife. Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary (HKK) and Huai Thab Salao-Huai Rabum Non-Hunting Area (HTS) are parts of a few places in Southeast Asia with deciduous forests. However, this area was heavily logged up until 1989, followed by a long period of fire suppression. The consequences of these changes on understory communities have not been investigated. Therefore, the current study aimed to examine the understory communities and their aboveground biomass before and after the annual prescribed burns in HKK and HTS. Understory plant composition and biomass were surveyed in November 2018 (before the fire) and May 2019 (three months after the fire) in 128 temporary plots, covering of deciduous dipterocarp forest, mixed deciduous forest, mixed deciduous forest with bamboo, and open area. We identified a total of 480 understory species, including 37 grass species, 214 forb species, 73 shrub species, 153 tree seedling species and three species of bamboo in the study plots. Grasses in the DDF plots were at 72.79 ± 22.41 kg ha−1, accounting for only ten percent of the understory plants in the plots. The understory community in the DDF plots was dominated by shrubs and tree seedlings of competing species, especially after the fire. The results suggested that past logging activities and long-term fire suppression had reduced the number of mature key dipterocarp forests and hindered the regeneration of grasses and forbs. Maintaining the structure of dipterocarp forests and sufficient food sources for the local wildlife species will require more active habitat management of the study areas.

After years of unsustainable logging, dry deciduous dipterocarp forest (DDDF) has become poor in timber stocks and has been converted to industrial crops such as rubber. The objectives of this study were to assess teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) tree establishment under degraded DDDF conditions and to determine factors that influence the suitability of teak as a forest enrichment tree species. A set of 64 experimental plots of 4 900 m2 each was set up and observed for 4–5 years for testing enrichment planting with teak under various combinations of two groups of factors: ecological conditions and forest status. Weighted, non-linear, multivariate regression models were used to detect key factors that influenced the suitability of teak. The results showed that at the age of 4 years the average dominant tree height (defined as 20% of the tallest trees in the experimental plot) reached 11.2, 7.8, 5.3 and 3.8 m for very good, good, average and poor suitability levels, respectively. Survival rates of planted teak from average to very good suitability levels were over 90%. Six key factors that affected the suitability of teak were waterlogging during the rainy season, altitude, stand volume of the degraded DDDF, soil type, percentage of sand and concentration of P2O5 in the soil. Under the extreme ecological and environmental conditions of the DDDF, enrichment planting with teak gave promising results.

Large forest areas of South-East Asia, are dominated by the Dipterocarpaceae tree family, which contains many important timber species. Unlike many other tropical trees, Dipterocarpaceae rely on ectomycorrhizal (ECM) root symbiosis for their mineral nutrition. This study aims to document the richness and community composition of ECM fungi in a dry deciduous forest in Thailand. Combining morphological and molecular identification methods revealed 69 species of ECM fungi that belong to 17 phylogenetic lineages. The /russula-lactarius, /tomentella-thelephora, /sordariales, /sebacina and /cantharellus lineages were the most species-rich. The fungal richness is comparable to other tropical rain forest sites, but the phylogenetic community structure has elements of both tropical and temperate ecosystems. Unlike tropical rain forests, the Cenococcum geophilum complex was one of the most frequent fungal taxa that had a relatively high ITS genetic diversity over the small sampling area. This study provides the first snapshot insight into the fungal community of dry dipterocarp forests. However, it is necessary to broaden the spatial and temporal scales of sampling to improve our understanding of the below-ground relations of dry and humid tropical forests.

This study focused on species diversity and ecology of the giant pill-millipedes family Zephroniidae in Nan Province. The millipedes were collected in rainy seasons of 2009-2011 for species diversity study. Two genera of the giant pill-millipedes; genus Sphaerobelum Verhoeff, 1924 and genus Zephronia Gray, 1832 of family Zephroniidae were dominated in this area. Genus Sphaerobelum occupied in higher moisture habitat such as moist deciduous forest and evergreen forest, while genus Zephronia presented in mixed deciduous forest and dry deciduous dipterocarp forest. Population ecology such as population size, dispersion, daily activities, diet and growth of the giant pill-millipedes, Zephronia cf. viridescens, from Chulalongkorn University Forestry and Research Station, Wiang Sa District, Nan Province was studied. Population size and dispersion were studied during 2009. Twenty of 2x2 m2 quadrats were sampling randomly each month for one year. For daily activities study, the data of each millipede sample were recorded every 30 minutes throughout the day. The result showed that they spent most of the time under leaf litter for feeding and another major activity tended to be mating at nighttime. Diets of the giant pill millipedes were observed in the habitat. Parts of plants and litter being consumed by them were collected and it was found that the major food items were Gigantochloa albociliata and Bauhinia spp. Growth was observed and recorded in enclosures within the habitat during 2009-2011. The data showed that hatchlings had to pass through eight moltings before having a constant number of segments and small millipedes molted more frequently than the larger sizes. From all information, the life span of Z. cf. viridescens was estimated to be more than 5 years. Differences in morphology between sexes were measured and compared. The dominant morphological characters of males were thoracic shield, ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth body segments, anal shield and sensorial cone number of the antennae. Most of their ecological data represented the adaptation of Z. cf. viridescens for survival and reproduction within the habitat.

Dry evergreen forest (DEF) and dry deciduous dipterocarp forest (DDF) are major forest types extensively distributed in northeastern Thailand, exhibiting different nutrient cycling properties. This study aims to improve our understanding on the pattern of mass loss and nitrogen release from two categories of roots (fine, <2 mm and small, 2–5 mm) of Hopea ferrea at DEF and fine roots of mixed trees and dwarf bamboo (Arundinaria pusilla) at DDF sites. Decomposition experiment was performed for more than 12 months using buried litter bag technique. Initial chemistry was significantly different among the four root litters; fine root of H. ferrea exhibited a low ratios of C:N and acid-insoluble:N. The fine root of dwarf bamboo was characterized by high contents of total carbohydrate and ash. Decomposition rate constants (year−1) of ash-free weight remaining were 1.27 and 0.55 for fine and small roots of H. ferrea, and 0.73 and 0.66 for fine root of mixed trees and dwarf bamboo, respectively. At the end of the experiment, the N concentration in fine and small roots of H. ferrea increased to 1.5 times the initial concentration. Whereas, N mass of dwarf bamboo decreased during the experiment. This suggests a different pattern of root decomposition and N release in two forest ecosystems. Generally, the fine root decomposition was faster in the DEF than in the DDF. The role of initial litter chemistry was more pronounced than the climatic seasonality on the belowground decomposition pattern in our study.

Three males and one female leopard cat were radio-collared and followed for periods of 1-13 months in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand. The cats had overall home ranges from 1.5-7.5 km2 with core areas of 0.72 km2. A female leopard cat utilized an area of 6.6 km2 over 13 months while a male leopard cat, who shifted ranges, used 7.5 km2 over 3.5 months. Cats followed for longer periods of time generally showed larger overall ranges. The cats were active 50 percent of the time and displayed arrhythmic activity patterns. Leopard cats followed for at least several months showed seasonal variation in movement and ranging patterns. Fourteen prey items were identified in the feces of leopard cats, with small mammals, particularly Maxomys surifer, dominating the prey. Leopard cats preferred resting and moving on the ground, utilizing dry deciduous dipterocarp forest proportionally less than dry evergreen or mixed deciduous forest. Annual fires that help maintain the dry deciduous dipterocarp forest in the study area may affect both short and long term survival of leopard cats.

Patterns of woody regeneration in terms of species composition and diversity were studied in mixed deciduous forest (MDF) and deciduous dipterocarp forest (DDF) in Minbyin reserved forest of Lewe Township. A total of 57 plant species of MDF belonging to 28 families and 342 individuals and 25 plant species of DDF consist of 15 families and 285 individuals were identified. Plant species diversity was quantitatively higher in the MDF (H' = 3.68) compared to the DDF (H' = 2.39). Tectona grandis showed the highest density (30), dominance (4.40 m2) and IVI (27.01) of MDF and Dipterocarpus tuberculatus also composed the highest density (109), dominance (9.02 m2) and IVI (81.87) in DDF. The smallest diameter class (10 - 20 cm) comprised with 29 species, 103 individuals in MDF and 18 species, 85 individuals in DDF. The size class distribution displayed a reverse J-shaped pattern. The largest numbers of species were concentrated in the smallest height class in both investigated forests because of height and diameter distribution is closely related. The total densities of seedlings and saplings were 1219 and 531 ha-1 in MDF and 988 and 444 ha-1 in DDF respectively. Although soil texture of (40 - 50 cm) and (90 - 100 cm) were sandy clay loam in mixed deciduous forest, the other layers of both investigated forests were sandy loam.

This article argues that public property rights should be recognised as a separate category of property interest, different and distinct from private and common property interests and conferring distinctive rights and obligations on both “owners” and members of the public. It develops a taxonomy to differentiate private, public and common property rights. The article concludes that it is a mistake to think in terms of “private property”, “common property” or “public property”. The division and allocation of resource entitlements in land can result in private, common and public property rights subsisting over the same land simultaneously, in different combinations and at different times. The categorisation of property interests in land (as private, common or public) may also shift and change from time to time. The article considers the importance of distinguishing between private, common and public property interests for developing new strategies for environmental governance, and for implementing the effective protection of natural resources.

The objective of the study is to evaluate optimum band ratio combinations data set derived from monthly Landsat 8 imageries for forest type classification around the Sirikit dam reservoir using supervised classification with Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC). In this study, imageries data acquired from January 2014 to November 2017 were used to create the monthly band ratio data set of Normalized Difference Vegetation Indices (NDVI), Normalized Difference Moisture Indices (NDMI), and Normalized Burn Ratios (NBR) and used to create the monthly multispectral (MS) data set represented as a case of without applying band ratio techniques. In classifying deciduous forest type, four data sets were used to classify two classes of deciduous forests, namely mixed deciduous forest and dry deciduous dipterocarp forest. After the accuracy assessment, the result showed that the overall accuracy and kappa coefficient of all data sets were between 78.33% – 86.21% and between 44.32% – 62.83%, respectively. Herein, the monthly NDVI multitemporal data set provided the highest overall accuracy and kappa coefficient which were better than the monthly MS multitemporal data set about 4% and 8%, respectively. In conclusion, applying monthly multitemporal data of Landsat 8 with band ratio technique, especially NDVI, can increase the accuracy of deciduous forest type classification.

Private and Common Property Rights

This study investigated the environmental factors and tree species characteristics that are important for the colonization of edge-interior gradients, for later application to the restoration of edge-transition areas created by highland agriculture in deciduous forests in the Mae Khum Mee watershed, northwest Thailand. Three belt plots (100 × 10 m) were established at the transition from the forest edge to the interior of two deciduous forest types (mixed deciduous forest [MDF] and deciduous dipterocarp forest [DDF]), for a total of six belt plots. The species composition of canopy trees and regenerated seedlings and saplings was assessed, together with several environmental factors. We analyzed the relative importance of the physical environment and recruitment limitation was evaluated in relation to the regeneration traits of tree species. The results indicated that it was difficult for DDF and MDF species to effectively colonize the near-edge areas of the forests, primarily because the key factors related to seedling and sapling colonization (i.e., recruitment limitation, the physical environment, and factors related to forest structure) did not match the edge environment. Generalist species experienced much less recruitment limitation along the edge-interior gradients of both DDFs and MDFs. Generalists such as Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Dalbergia cultrata, and Vitex pinnata exhibited more successful establishment under conditions at the edges of both deciduous forests. These findings suggest that the natural regeneration of generalist species can be utilized as a first step in forest-edge restoration due to their facilitation of subsequent colonization by primary forest species.