Tissue Engineering of the Anterior Cruciate Ligament: The Viscoelastic Behavior and Cell Viability of a Novel Braid–Twist Scaffold

Abstract

The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is the most commonly injured ligament of the knee; it also contributes to normal knee function and stability. Due to its poor healing potential severe ACL damage requires surgical intervention, ranging from suturing to complete replacement. Current ACL replacements have a host of limitations that prevent their extensive use. Investigators have begun to utilize tissue-engineering techniques to create new options for ACL repair, regeneration and replacement. In this study we tested novel braid–twist scaffolds, as well as braided scaffolds, twisted fiber scaffolds and aligned fiber scaffolds, for use as ACL replacements composed of poly(L-lactic acid) fibers. Scaffolds were examined using stress relaxation tests, cell viability assays and scanning electron microscopy. The behaviors of the braid–twist scaffolds were modeled with Maxwell and quasi-linear viscoelastic (QLV) models. In stress relaxation tests, the braid–twist scaffolds behaved similarly to native ACL tissue, with final normalized stresses of 87% and 83% after an 8 N load. There was agreement between the experimental data and the Maxwell model when the model included an element for each structural element in the scaffold. There was also agreement between the experimental data and QLV model, scaffolds with similar braiding angles shared constants. In cell proliferation studies no differences were found between fibroblast growth on the braided scaffolds and the braid–twist scaffolds. SEM images showed the presence of new extracellular matrix. Data from this and previous tensile studies demonstrate that the braid–twist scaffold design may be effective in scaffolds for ACL tissue regeneration.