The treatment and management of neuroleptic malignant syndrome

Abstract

Gratz, Silvia S., Douglas F. Levinson and George M. Simpson. The Treatment and Management of Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome. Prog. Neuro. Psychopharmacol. & Biol. Psychiat. 1992, 16(4):425–443. 1. 1. The neuroleptic malignant syndrome was initially described as a disorder specifically related to neuroleptic usage with frequent fatal outcome. The observations of variant or mild cases of this syndrome as well as case reports on neuroleptlc-malignant-like syndromes in the absence of neuroloptics raises the issue of the usefulness of this terminology and highlights the potential for inappropriate management of this “malignant” syndrome. It has been suggested that hypothalamic thermoregulatory responses may involve an interplay among noradrenergic, cholinergic and serotonergic pathways. Out treatment strategy is based on the pharmacology of neuroleptics and empirical data, verified in our own clinical practice and considers that it is often difficult to determine whether certain physiologic states are a consequence to or specific triggering factors. 2. 2. If a patient's temperature is less than 101, we emphasize vigorous treatment with anticholinergic agents, while simultaneously assessing the psychiatric need for neuroleptics versus medical risks. Given that the severe rigidity of NMS represents severe extrapyramidal effects of dopamine blockade, there is no reason to withhold anticholinergics in the absence of higher temperatures. Neuroleptics can be stopped at the discretion of the clinician even during circumstances when there is fever below 101. 3. 3. In cases of severe EPS with fever greater than or equal to 101, we recommend stopping neuroleptlcs, treating with anticholinergics and starting with dopamine agonists. In the event of a poor response to dopamine agonists, a brief trial of dantrolene and/or benzodiazepines is recommended. Dantrolene should not be introduced for prolonged periods, since abnormal liver function studies have been observed in approximately 1.8% of patients. 4. 4. In cases of extreme hyperpyrexia (fever greater than 103), clinicians should consider transfer to an ICU or another medical support. Extreme temperatures have been associated with potentially irreversible cerebellar or other brain damage, if not aggressively treated. If neuroleptlcs are later indicated, a 2 week interval after resolution of symptoms should be maintained before reinstituting neuroleptics. 5. 5. In patients with severe EPS without fever, we emphasize aggressive use of anticholinergic therapy, while simultaneously considering the psychiatric need for neuroleptics versus medical risks. In an cases where a patient's swallowing, respirations or physical mobility is severely compromised, we suggest stopping neuroleptlcs. Anticholinergic agents should be continued for 7 days after neuroleptics are stopped. If anticholinergic agents are unsuccessful after 2–3 dosages, dopamine agonlsts may be added, while simultaneously monitoring vital signs. It should be emphasized that severe EPS sometimes takes days to improve even after neuroleptic cessation and the addition of anticholinergics. 6. 6. If EPSs are intense or of long enough duration and, particularly, in the presence of akathisia and agitation, then a combination of excess heat production and interference with the hypothalamic temperature control mechanisms can produce a syndrome of NMS. If EPSs are avoided, neuroleptlcs are used in low dosages and benzodiazepines are used concomitantly for agitation, then we should see very little of NMS.