The Topography of Ancient Jerusalem. 2nd Century BC - 2nd Century AD

Relevance. The relevance of this study is determined by its examination of the dramatic poem «Orgy» through a historical-receptive lens. This approach allows for the identification of the mechanisms behind the author’s interpretation of the historical period and the tracing of the specifics of the reception of Antiquity within the text. Aim. The aim of the article is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the dramatic poem «Orgy» by the Ukrainian writer and poet Lesia Ukrainka, utilizing the methodological framework of classical reception studies. It also seeks to identify the mechanisms and reveal the role of these historical borrowings in the context of the author’s vision of Antiquity as a whole, and specifically the Greco-Roman relations from the military conquest of Hellas to the era of the Second Sophistic (2nd century BC – 2nd century AD). Methodology. The research methodology is based on the principles of historicism and objectivity, characterized by an interdisciplinary approach. The theoretical and methodological framework relies on the principles of receptive aesthetics and the concepts of classical reception studies. The study also employs analytical, hermeneutic, and comparative-historical methods. Results. The study establishes that the specificity of the author’s interpretation of historical events, against which the main plot unfolds, lies in chronological hybridization – combining two temporal spaces to provide a deeper elucidation of Greco-Roman relations. It was found that the historical narrative in the work functions as a «safe distance» for constructing analogies between the past and the present. The history and specifics of the perception of Greek culture in the ancient world (from the 2nd century BC to the Second Sophistic period in the 2nd century AD) are examined. It is revealed that the reception of Greek culture by ancient Rome, as described in the text, is based on the principles of selectivity and pragmatism, utilized for cultural appropriation to achieve the political self-determination of the Roman elite and the legitimization of power by the Antonine dynasty emperors. The evolution of the concept of «orgy» in a historical context is analyzed: from a sacred ritual associated with the cult of Dionysus to its interpretation by the recipient – ancient Rome. It is established that throughout the plotline, there is a shift in semantic accents regarding the primary definition of the concept of «orgy», which indicates the conflict of Greek and Roman identities depicted in the work. Conclusions. The obtained results indicate that applying the methodology of classical reception allowed for a holistic disclosure of the mechanisms of assimilation and interpretation of ancient history in Lesia Ukrainka’s dramatic poem «Orgy». The study emphasizes that the author appeals to universal problems, actualizing the issue of Greco-Roman relations during Antiquity (2nd century BC – 2nd century AD) as a model of interaction between dominant and subjugated nations. The semantic transformation of the concept of «orgy» serves as a key marker demonstrating the specifics of the Roman reception of Greek culture. The proposed approach opens prospects for further studies of Antiquity in the context of classical reception within the writer’s creative heritage.

Historically, Chinas Xinjiang Region has been important in Chinese-Western cultural exchange. This investigation into the diet of human populations in the Xinjiang region provides substantial information on the interactions between China and the West. We report here on stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of human bone collagen from the 12th century BC to the 2nd century AD at the Yanghai Tombs, Xinjiang. The results of this study indicate the consumption of significant amounts of C3-based animal protein throughout these periods. We argue that animal husbandry dominated the lifestyle of ancient Yanghai populations, while agricultural cultivation was less important. The diet of ancient Yanghai human populations clearly changed with time and is closely related to the fluctuation of human populations. More specifically, there were significant differences in food resources available to the Yanghai ancestors in the middle to late Bronze Age (12th Century BC - 8th Century BC), which may reflect the diversity of these populations. Subsequently, during the early Iron Age (7th Century BC - 3rd Century BC), after an extended period of adjustment and development, the diet of all individuals became more similar. However, during the Han Dynasty (2nd Century BC - 2nd Century AD), the human diet consisted of a larger proportion of animal protein than in earlier periods. This suggests that stockbreeding played a more important role in Yanghai during this time. Based on careful consideration of historical records and archaeological features we suggest that this was due to the arrival of the Huns.

Before the recent discoveries of the Karakalpak-Australian Expedition to Ancient Chorasmia (KAE) evidence for Zoroastrianism in Chorasmia was scant, coming only from the official use of the Zoroastrian calendar, the onomastics, and the archaeologically documented funerary practices of the region, while the interpretation of remains of temples or fire chapels is subject to discussion. During the last seasons of work on the material of the KAE excavations at Akchakhan-kala, the royal seat of Chorasmia in the 2nd century BC – 2nd century AD, substantial fragments of wall paintings from the rear wall of the main columned hall of the “Ceremonial Complex” were cleaned and reassembled. It appeared at once that they belong to oversized standing figures, most probably deities. The best preserved image has been identified as Srōsh, god of prayer and protector of the soul after death. The second figure is probably to be identified as a personification of the group of the Fravashis, pre-created souls of the ancestors and protectors of “Aryan people” in battles, also worshipped as deities. A third figure, very partly preserved, perhaps represents Zam-Spandarmad, goddess of the Earth. If these identifications are valid, these deities appear to have been chosen because of their association with the turn of the year. This would be consistent with the possibility that the already known “portrait gallery” of Akchakhan-kala was related to the commemoration of royal and clanic ancestors at the end of the year. Notwithstanding much still needs to be elucidated, it appears already certain that these paintings, dating about the beginning of the 1st century AD, are the earliest documented attempt to create a Zoroastrian art directly inspired by the Avesta. The identification of some figures in the Toprak-kala “High Palace” (2nd-3rd centuries AD) can perhaps be reconsidered in the light of this new evidence.

Ships and boats form the foundations of the maritime connectivity that is a central part of our understanding of the ancient Mediterranean. While the general chronological sequence of sail and sailing-rig development is well established, the implications are less-well discussed. This article sets out how sails and sailing rigs developed in antiquity, with emphasis on the Greco-Roman world. Subsequently, instances of innovation are defined. Why specific pieces of maritime technology were, or were not, widely adopted is considered. Long-term technological continuity can be comprehended, and a shared maritime culture of sailing in the ancient Mediterranean is suggested.

En dépit de sa simplicité apparente, le fromage était associé à Rome à des enjeux symboliques forts. Son processus de fabrication en faisait une métaphore du processus de civilisation, malgré son lien avec le monde des bergers, et servait de modèle pour comprendre la formation et l’évolution du fœtus dans le ventre maternel. À l’évidence, c’était un aliment consommé quotidiennement par le peuple à la campagne comme à la ville, lors des repas de la journée (jentaculum, prandium) ou à n’importe quel moment. Mais si son utilisation dans les recettes de la « haute cuisine » était marginale, il figurait toujours dans les repas du soir (cena) ou les banquets aristocratiques, dans l’un ou plusieurs des trois services. La texture moelleuse du fromage frais et le goût salé du fromage sec plaisaient aux Romains, de même que la modulation de sa saveur par parfumage ou salage était fidèle au principe « illusionniste » de la « haute cuisine ». L’existence d’une liste des meilleurs fromages de l’Empire atteste que certains d’entre eux étaient impliqués dans une logique de classification et de hiérarchisation, typique de la démarche gastronomique.

For the first time, a contextual consideration of some paleopathological manifestations on the adult skulls from the excavations of the Altyn-Asar 4 (n=363) burial grounds is proposed, which makes it possible to indirectly assess social stratification degree of the population of the Eastern Aral Sea region and the chronological dynamics of some indicators reflecting the quality of life of the population of the era of migrations. Comparison of the total samples selected according to chronology (2nd century BC – 2nd century AD, 2nd – 4th centuries, 4th – 6th centuries) revealed consistently high frequencies of enamel hypoplasia, intercalary bones on the cranial vault and metopic suture. In the sample of 2nd – 4th centuries, a downward trend in the frequencies of caries and abscesses was traced. When correlated with the type of burial structures (crypts of 2 types, soil pits of 4 types), a better state of health of the dental system was revealed in individuals in crypts of the first type, and, in general, in those buried in crypts compared to those buried in the soil pits. The most diverse picture is obtained from the analysis of the materials from the detached cemeteries. The frequencies of discretely varying features confirm the previous conclusions about the heterogeneity of the anthropological composition in the Jetyasar population, in particular, of the migrant origin of those buried in the Altyn-Asar 4m burial ground. Variations in the frequency of dental pathologies, anemia, and enamel hypoplasia may reflect differences in the lifestyle and quality of life of those buried in different necropolises, for example, different levels of dietary stress. A high number of skull injuries, including fatal wounds caused by military weapons, indicate the aggressive nature of the social environment. The greatest number of such damages is observed in the 2nd – 4th centuries‘ series.

The article presents the latest results of excavations of one of the reference burials of the Kara-Abyz culture, located in the Iglinsky region of the Republic of Bashkortostan. Materials from six burials containing seven skeletons are introduced into scientific circulation. The funeral rite is characterized by the following features: burials were performed according to the rite of inhumation in simple subrectangular grave pits with rounded corners, vertical walls and a flat bottom. The accompanying equipment is represented by a significant number of bronze decorations: zoomorphic belt plates, belt mirror plaques, round plaques, trapezoidal pendants, etc. Weapon items are represented by iron three-bladed arrowheads, horse harness items are presented by iron bits. From the category of household items are presented by iron knives and a spindle whorl. The grave goods allow us to date the identified burials within the 2nd century BC — 2nd century AD.

Background Vestibular migraine and Menière's disease are two types of episodic vertigo syndromes that were already observed in Greek and Chinese antiquity. Descriptions first appeared in the work of the classical Greek physician Aretaeus of Cappadocia, who lived in the 2nd century AD, and in Huangdi Neijing, a seminal medical source in the Chinese Medical Classics, written between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD. Aim The aim of this paper is to search in Aretaeus' book De causis et signis acutorum et chronicorum morborum and in Huangdi Neijing for descriptions of vertigo co-occurring with headache or ear symptoms that resemble current classifications of vestibular migraine or Menière's disease. Results Aretaeus describes a syndrome combining headache, vertigo, visual disturbance, oculomotor phenomena, and nausea that resembles the symptoms of vestibular migraine. In the Chinese book Huangdi Neijing the Yellow Thearch mentions the co-occurrence of episodic dizziness and a ringing noise of the ears that recalls an attack of Menière's disease. Conclusions The descriptions of these two conditions in Greek and Chinese antiquity are similar to the vertigo syndromes currently classified as vestibular migraine and Menière's disease. In clinical practice it may be difficult to clearly differentiate between them, and they may also co-occur.

Dance is a human cultural activity aimed at non-verbal emotional communication, mentioned for the first time in the circle of European culture by Homer in the Iliad (8th/7th century BC). In Indian culture — the most extensive one of four contemporary civilizations of antiquity (next to Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Chinese), whose cradle is the Indus Valley Civilization — the first material evidence of the presence of dance is dated between 2300–1750 BC. It is a bronze statuette of a dancing girl, making us aware of the fact that this type of activity has accompanied people since the dawn of time, regardless of their origin and cultural affiliation. India and its oldest religion, Hinduism, have made this art highly prized because of its original, pure spiritual character.
 The first treatise entirely devoted to dance, entitled Natyashastra (Treatise on Performing Arts), was written according to tradition between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD, although many premises indicate that its beginnings date back to the 5th century BC, and the final version — to around 5th century AD. Its author was Bharata Muni, an ancient sage, theatrologist and musicologist who allegedly received knowledge of arts from the god Brahma himself to create a symbolic representation of the world which, by showing good and evil, would persuade both the viewers and the performers to act ethically. From Natyashastra it appears that dance was created by the gods for their worship. In its most original form, dance grew out of the sacrificial ritual, hence the knowledge of it was secret, highly codified and communicated in strict confidentiality. The patron of the dance and its divine performer par excellence is the god Shiva in the aspect of Nataraja (Lord of the Dance), who in one image combines god as the creator, protector and destroyer of the universe, while simultaneously containing the Indian concept of an endless time cycle. Accurate recreation of the mythical dance initiated by Shiva guarantees that the faithful achieve salvation by overcoming sin, ignorance, and laziness represented by the demon Apasmara, on whom the god treads in a dancing trance.
 For the Indian Hindu culture dance has a highly important ritualistic and mystical meaning, hence it is also present along with music and singing, which is a melodic recitation of sacred verses, in all literature, from the Vedas (sacred books of Hinduism), through encyclopedic Puranas, to epics such as Mahabharata and Ramayana. Dance is indispensable to the theater as well as visual and audiovisual arts, brings relief to those in mourning and sorrow, leads to liberation from samsara (the wheel of incarnations), and is a reflection of divinity in its purest, most dynamic manifestation: movement. Thanks to dance being a rejection of oneself, entering a mystical trance, one can connect with the Absolute here on Earth and experience divinity.

Zeytinli Island, which is connected to Balıkesir province Erdek county, is one of the important archaeological excavation sites in our country. The anthropological evaluations of human skeletons obtained from Zeytinli island excavations gave important information about age and gender especially when the skull was taken into account and especially the use of radiological examinations increased the reliability of this information. In particular, theuse of radiological examination sincreas esther reliability of this information. Our study was carried out between 2007 and 2011 by taking the skulls of a total of 22 individuals, 6 females and 16 males between the 2nd century BC and the 12th century AD, uncovered as a result of the excavations performed in Zeytinli Island. The image staken by multislice computed tomography were transformedin to three-dimensional form with workstation software, and their interorbital, biorbital and bizygomatic measurements were performed. The skull measurement values were presented as median (range) with a whisker graphic. The median female and male values were comparedusing the Mann-Whitney test. The Pearson correlation test was used to examine the correlations between the measurement values. The fact that the p-value was below 0.05 was considered significant. Upon evaluating the data, the difference between the male and female interorbital and bizygomatic distances was not found significant (p>0,05). When the biorbital distances were taken into account, the biorbital distances of male skulls were found to be significantly higher compared to those of female skulls (p<0,05) . No significant relationship was found when the analyses of the correlation between interorbital and biorbitaland bizygomatic distances were examined. In our study, the bizigotic distances in the skulls belonging to male individuals are longer than the skulls of female individuals. This shows that the lateral protrusions of the male's skull are more prominent. This is an important criterion for gender discrimination.

In 1942, following readjustment works of the road connecting the Saveni and Avrameni communes, a barrow was destroyed, resulting the find of a bronze cauldron. A. Nițu deemed the vessel of Avrameni as part of the series of cauldrons coinciding with the civilisation and expansion of the Sarmatians by the Don and Lower and Mid Danube in the 1st – 4th century AD and dated it to this chronological span. Gh. Bichir argued that the Avrameni cauldron is somewhat later than that of Piatra Șoimului (Calu), which the scholar dated to the 1st century BC. The vessel’s shape resembles that of a “bell” cast together with its handles, while the biconical foot was made separately, the two parts being attached by a bronze cast-made plug. On the body, the vessel displays several repair traces. According to its features and specificities, the Avrameni cauldron belongs to type Demidenko II.1.B, being the single of the type in the area between the Don and the Carpathians. The remaining resembling specimens come from 2nd – 1st century BC complexes from territories left of the Lower Don and the Kuban region. The author believes that according to its shape, the curved vertical handles decorated each with a knob as well as its making manner and foot attachment, the Avrameni vessel is an artefact joining elements specific to the Sauromatian cauldrons used in the Volga and Lower Don area, but also in the Kuban region also in the 2nd – 1st century BC. Within the context of its analysis are also discussed the cauldrons of Bubueci and Velikoploskoe, both from “ritual hoards/deposits” part of a larger group of such features of the 3rd – 1st century BC from territories comprised between the Volga – the pre-mountain area from North Caucasus in the east and the Lower Danube - Prut to the west. The cauldron of Bubueci belongs to type Demidenko I.3.A. It has a body cast together with the handles, while the iconical foot, surviving fragmentarily, was cast separately. Similarly to the Avrameni vessel, that of Bubueci is the most western find of a cauldron of the type. The body shape, curved vertical handles decorated each with three knobs, the lip shape and its making manner, how the handles start from the cauldron rim as well as how they were made, indicate that the vessel combines elements specific to the Sauromatian and early Sarmatian cauldrons. In the case of the Avrameni and Bubueci cauldrons, as well as those similar, the author concludes they are either a continuation of ancient casting traditions or were produced sometime earlier, yet continued to be used for a good period of time after their production cease. The exhibited repair traces and presence far from their territories of origin, where they were made and used, as well as their find together with 2nd – 1st century BC artefacts confirm, according to the author, their use for a longer time span. In the case of the Avrameni vessel, its deposition might have occurred sometime during the 2nd century BC as well as between the end of the 2nd – first decades of the 1st century BC. With respect to the dating of the “ritual hoard/deposit” of Bubueci, the author believes it dates no earlier than the 2nd century BC, and that its framing sometime between mid 2nd century BC and early 1st century BC is very likely. In the case of the Velikoploskoe cauldron, its body shape and sizes resemble those of the Demidenko VI type cauldrons emerging in the 2nd century BC, yet the remaining elements specific to this vessel type are missing. The rudimentary attachment procedure of the foot to the body, rim shape, its making manner, as well as how the handles start from the vessel rim, are according to the author, specific to the Sauromatae and early Sarmatian cauldrons (types Demidenko I-III, V) used in the first centuries BC, which hinders its ascribing to a certain type. Therefore, it was concluded that the Velikoploskoe vessel seems to be intermediary between the 5th - 3rd century BC cauldrons, mainly Sauromatae, and those of the early and mid armatian periods between the 2nd century BC and mid 2nd century AD. Its elements and making manner allow, according to the author, for its dating to the 2nd – 1st century BC, likely only sometime during the 2nd century BC, which is not contradicted by the remaining artefacts in the find.

Sturgeon remains have been identified in several French archaeological sites. Accurate observation has led to a new finding: the presence of another sturgeon species by side of Acipenser sturio. This investigation, mostly a reevaluation, was conducted by using the morphological characteristics of dermal bones (bony plates and scutes) that allow discriminating between the two sturgeon species A. sturio from A. oxyrinchus. A. oxyrinchus was found present in several archaeological sites on the French Atlantic coast, dating from the end of the Neolithic Age until the 2nd century AD (C.R. Palevol., 8, 2009, 717); in the Loire River in Roman Times and in the 11th century AD; in the Seine River drainage between the 2nd century BC and first half of 17th century AD, as well as in the Scarpe River flowing into the Scheldt River (France, Belgium and the Netherlands) between the 10th and 11th century AD. In one site, up to 65 sturgeon remains were identified and are attributable to one or the other species. In two out of the four South Atlantic sites, both species were recorded, as well as in one site (Paris-Grand Louvre) of the Seine River. The two species were in sympatry for a long time in several French drainages and sometimes up until recent times. The sympatry of the two species in France gives additional support for this characteristic as a quasi-general rule concerning sturgeons world-wide. The present findings suggest A. oxyrinchus as a native French sturgeon species and new key-issues should be addressed.

Fear of heights (acrophobia) is defined as a subtype of specific phobias by the DSM-IV TR [1] criteria based on the diagnostic features of panic attacks. It has a lifetime prevalence of 3.1–5.3 % [2]. There is, however, a continuum extending from acrophobia to stimulus-dependent visual height intolerance, which does not fulfill the diagnostic criteria of a specific phobia. The frequency of visual height intolerance (height vertigo) is much higher. A recent epidemiological study based on a representative survey revealed that visual height intolerance has a prevalence of 28 % [3]. Thus, height vertigo is a well-known condition that manifests either as a specific phobia or, if less severe, as visual height intolerance. In their historical review, Balaban and Jacob [4] convincingly describe the comorbidity of vertigo and anxiety as an integral component of the medical literature since antiquity. We found a vivid description of symptoms typical for fear of heights in the Greek Corpus Hippocraticum, 5th century BC [5]: ‘‘When Demokles was with him, he said that he felt his eyesight had worsened, and the muscles in his entire body had slackened. He was, he said, not able to walk along the edge of a precipice or cross over a bridge. He would not dare walk over a ditch, regardless how shallow, for he would be afraid to fall into it. However, he would dare to walk in the ditch itself’’. This raised the question as to whether comparable descriptions can be found in other cultures from nearly the same time period but with a completely different concept of bodily function and disorders, namely in the Chinese medical classics. The 80th chapter (‘Discourse on great confusion’) of the book Huangdi Neijing Lingshu, whose content dates back to between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD [6– 8], provides a lively description of height vertigo. The book is part of the Huangdi Neijing (The internal classic of the Yellow Thearch), the theoretical foundation of Chinese medicine. The Yellow Thearch, Huang Di, is considered the cultural hero who bestowed the gift of medicine on the Chinese people. The chapters of the book are mostly written as interviews between Huang Di and his physicians. In the text, Huang Di asks Qi Bo: ‘‘Often when I climb onto a clear, cold observation platform, after I have gone up half of the steps, look around, and crawl further forward; there is a confusion’’. (Fig. 1) (Clarification: a later commentary refers to the height of the platform as an explanation for this description: ‘‘[its] Qi is cold, it is therefore called ‘a clear, cold platform’.)’’. He continues: ‘‘I feel unusual and inwardly strange, I close my eyes, and then I open them. I calm my mind and steady my breath. A longer time passes, but the confusion does not resolve. Everything spins around and I feel dizzy. I loosen my hair and kneel on the ground, I bow my head, and look down. This [strange feeling] doesn’t stop for a long time. What kind of Qi causes this?’’ Qi Bo replies: ‘‘The essence of the Qi of the five depot-organs and of the six palace-organs all flow upwards to the eyes and give them clarity.(...) The eyelids envelop the essence of the sinews, the bones, the blood and the Qi and together with the vessels they form a connection. At the top it connects to the brain, at the back it comes out in the middle of the neck. If the evil strikes M. Bauer Horst-Gortz-Institute for Theory, History, and Ethics of Chinese Life Sciences, Chariteplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany

The earliest surviving trigonometric tables used to compute numerical values for geometrical magnitudes occur in Ptolemy’s Almagest (composed in the 2nd century AD). Current historical evidence cannot fix with precision the exact origins of such trigonometric tables. However, it seems likely that the Greek astronomer Hipparchos of Nicaea (2nd Century BC) was among the first, if not the very first to compute the ratio of chord to radius for a series of central angles in a circle, and to set the example of their use in astronomy for Ptolemy’s later work. By comparison, geometrical methods for the determination of magnitudes are considerably older, and have become highly formalized no later than the end of the 4th century BC, in Euclid’s Elements. This raises questions with regard to the comparative advantages of trigonometry over the older geometrical methods, and the particular emphasis that they received in the context of Greek mathematical astronomy.

The West Anatolia Extensional Zone, which has a width of about 300 km, is located within the Alpine-Himalayan belt and is one of the regions with intense seismic activity in the world. The most important geomorphological structures in this area are three main graben structures resulting from regional N-S extension since the Early Miocene. These structures are the E-W trending Buyuk Menderes, Kucuk Menderes, and Gediz grabens. Soke Basin is located at the SW end of the Buyuk Menderes graben. The lineaments which control the NW of Soke Basin have a length of approximately 40 km and have been defined as the Priene-Sazli Fault (PSF). The PSF is seismically active, and the last large earthquake (the Soke-Balat earthquake; Ms: 6.8) was produced on July 16th of 1955. The ancient city of Priene, which was located in the study area, suffered from destructive earthquakes (in the 4th century and 2nd century BC, in the 2nd century AD, during the Byzantine period and after the 12th century BC). This study aims to reveal the effect of the PSF on the morphotectonic evolution of the region and the relative tectonic activity of the fault. To this end, it was the first time the stream length gradient index (SL: 130–1303), mountain-front sinuosity (Smf: 1.15–1.96), valley floor height and valley width ratio (Vf: 0.27–1.66), drainage basin asymmetry (AF: 0.15–0.76), hypsometric curve (HC) and hypsometric integral (HI: 0.22–0.86) and basin shape index (Bs: 1.04–5.75) along the mountain front that is formed by the PSF. Using a combination of the mountain-front sinuosity (Smf), valley floor height and valley width ratio (Vf), it is found that the uplift ratio in the region is not less than 0.05 mm/yr and the relative tectonic activity of PSF is high. According to the relative tectonic activity index (Iat) obtained from geomorphic indices, the southwest part of the PSF is relatively more active than the northeast part. As a result, I posit that the PSF has the potential to produce earthquakes in the future similarly to those that were produced in the past, and that the most destructive earthquakes will likely occur on the southwest segments of the fault according to geomorphic indices.