Abstract
Ecological researchers did not discover the social aspects of schools; earlier thinkers and observers such as Dewey (e.g., 1916/1966, 1938/1963), Waller (1932/ 1967), and Parsons (1959) pointed out what many teachers already knew-that teaching and learning in classrooms are social activities, conducted in groups. Teaching and learning in most school classrooms differ profoundly from the teaching and learning embodied in such powerful images as Socrates in dialogue with his students, Emile with his tutor, or the psychologist shaping the behavior of rats and pigeons one at a time in the laboratory. Recent ecological studies reveal the operations of school social systems in sufficient detail to provide a clearer understanding of how those systems work and what their implications are, both for the
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