The Serial as Episteme

REVIEWS 303 emphasizes their seemingly unmotivated status, their lack of causality. On the opening page of Zadig, Kavanagh reads the alternation between the imperfect verb tense and the passé simple as the sudden intrusion of chance into the realm of stability and rationality. After discussing Point de lendemain and several of Crébillon's novels, Kavanagh ends with the narrative that most successfully stages the debate between freedom and fatalism , absolute chance and rigid predictability, Diderot's Jacques le fataliste. Kavanagh illuminates Jacques by referring to the prospectus for the Encyclopédie, where Diderot distinguishes between what is known and what is left to know. What still (always?) remains missing is crucial to this novel, described as "an unintegrated multiplicity of elements whose value lies outside any overarching system imposed on its parts" (p. 246). Hard and fast conclusions do not flow easily from à study like this one. Rather Kavanagh leaves us with a series of specific, provocative insights into several novels and a solid basis for a cultural history of gambling under the ancien régime. Peter V. Conroy, Jr University of Illinois, Chicago Rosemary Lloyd. The Land ofLost Content: Children and Childhood in Nineteenth -Century French Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992. xiv + 271pp. $94.50. ISBN 0-19-81517-X. Samuel F. Pickering, Jr. Moral Instruction and Fictionfor Children 1749-1820. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1993. ? + 214pp. US$35.00. ISBN 0-82031463 -3. Rosemary Lloyd's The Land of Lost Content begins with a quotation from Colette: "Where are the children?" The epigraph is as resonant for the student of eighteenthcentury fiction as it is relevant to Lloyd's exploration of the ways in which nineteenthcentury French writers represent childhood and children. There is, for example, no entry for "children" in Michael McKeon's massive study of the English novel's origins, although the young are of course there in the guise of apprentices, orphans, foundlings, nubile heroines, and lusty youths on the make. Indeed, Marthe Roberts suggests that abandoned children—the bastard and the foundling—model the novel's foundational plots (as in Don Quixote and Robinson Crusoe). Although J. Paul Hunter and other students of eighteenth-century fiction have noted the interplay between young readers and the emergent novel, it is still fair to say that the representation of eighteenth-century childhood remains an orphan—the bastard child on the doorstep that literature, art, history, sociology , and critical theory have not yet welcomed into the family. Because it solicits transdisciplinary approaches, childhood is everywhere and nowhere, a good chapter in art history here, an interesting essay on education there. "Children's literature" itself is, moreover, an ambiguous term, a polymorphous possessive which may signal "of," "by," "for," or "about," and which always implies a symbiosis of child and adult: it is adults who write and buy the books and often read them to children. Meanwhile, our cultural narratives of the child get trickier all the time. What used to be called the "invention of childhood" has elicited much inquiry into the eighteenth-century youngster's family life, but archivists now contest the influential formulations of Philippe Aries and Lawrence Stone (was there any such "invention" at all?), 304 EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FICTION 6:3 and postmodern theorists deconstruct the developmental notions that shape the stories of childhood we thought we knew (is development not itself an invention, just another fictional plot?). Even slipperier than historical childhood is early children's literature, the most neglected area in an already marginal specialty. Labelled as imaginatively retarded , children's literature is the only eighteenth-century genre still dismissed as merely didactic. The two books under review are therefore especially noteworthy: how do they negotiate a seemingly fallow pastoral common that is also a potential critical minefield? Rosemary Lloyd's Land ofLost Content is as interesting for the questions it raises and the themes it suggests as for the light it throws on the "long" eighteenth century. She begins by wondering why nineteenth-century French literature is reputed childless when its English counterpart is so literarily fecund, and she makes us wonder in turn about the occluded Enlightenment origins for the Victorian "Golden Age" ofjuvenile portrayals. She conjoins representations...

New guidelines recommend shared decision-making (SDM) for women and their clinician in consideration of breast cancer screening, particularly for women ages 35-50 where guidelines for routine mammography are controversial. A number of models offer general guidelines for SDM across clinical practice, yet they do not offer specific guidance about conducting SDM in mammography. We conducted a scoping review of the literature to identify the key elements of breast cancer screening SDM and synthesize these key elements for utilization by primary care clinicians. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews; Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL Plus); PsycInfo, PubMed (MEDLINE), Scopus, and SocIndex databases were searched. Inclusion criteria were original studies from peer-reviewed publications (from 2009 or later) reporting breast cancer screening (mammography), medical decision-making, and patient-centered care. Study populations needed to include female patients 18+ years of age facing a real-life breast cancer screening decision. Article findings were specific to shared decision-making and/or use of a decision aid. Data extracted includes study design, population, setting, intervention, and critical findings related to breast cancer screening SDM elements. Scoping analysis includes descriptive analysis of study features and content analysis to identify the SDM key elements. Twenty-four articles were retained. Three thematic categories of key elements emerged from the extracted elements: information delivery/patient education (specific content and delivery modes), interpersonal clinician-patient communication (aspects of interpersonal relationship impacting SDM), and framework of the decision (sociocultural factors beyond direct SDM deliberation). A number of specific breast cancer screening SDM elements relevant to primary care clinical practice are delineated. The findings underscore the importance of the relationship between the patient and clinician and the necessity of spelling out each step in the SDM process. The clinician needs to be explicit in telling a woman that she has a choice about whether to get a mammogram and the benefits and harms of screening mammography. Finally, clinicians need to be aware of sociocultural factors that can influence their relationships and their patients' decision-making processes and attempt to identify and address these factors.

Lorraine original and important landmark study that contributes to broader understanding of the emergent history of objectivity, the epistemic values of scientific visualization, and the links connecting both. Objectivity is based on a close examination of numerous scientific and medical atlases published in Europe and the US since the eighteenth century. The authors are eminent historians of science who specialize in different historical periods: Daston is a scholar of early modern science, while Galison is a historian and philosopher of twentieth-century microphysics. Both scholars have published extensively and influentially on a number of topics regarding the scientific community, objectivity, vision, and representation. Objectivity, beautifully produced and containing over one hundred illustrations (including twenty-one color plates), depicts a variety of scientific phenomena studied since the eighteenth century, from astronomical to botanical to meteorological subjects, and more. Daston and Galison explore how historically variant approaches to scientific image-making since the eighteenth century have expressedand reinforcedchanging epistemic ideals and values linked to the intellectual authority of scientists. Objectivity is a rich, sophisticated, and complex historical analysis to which a brief summary cannot adequately do justice, and readers will find many treasures of their own to mine. A few of their main arguments can be highlighted here: The authors emphasize that scientific objectivity is a contingent value that has meant different things throughout history and that it is far more complex and novel a concept than it has sometimes seemed. Specifically, Daston and Galison show that making sense of objectivity as a historical value requires deep understanding both of

In this unusual and original study, Marcia Pointon examines the cultural effects and consequences of the participation by women in acts of representation in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. She explores their lives and work, and a cultural environment in which images of female saints and goddesses established indices of femininity in the homes of wealthy men. Did the women portrayed also possess artefacts, and did they use the power of gifts and bequests to determine social relations? Did they themselves participate in the processes of creating images of the seen world? Pointon sets out to answer some of these questions through a series of novel and vividly recounted case studies of women such as Emma Hamilton (wife and mistress); Mary Moser, the artist; Dorothy Richardson, the antiquarian. She shows that the relationship of these women to the world of consumption was affective and imaginative as well as economic.

In this ambitious and original study, Lynn Festa examines how and why sentimental fiction became one of the primary ways of representing British and French relations with colonial populations in the eighteenth century. Drawing from novels, poetry, travel narratives, commerce manuals, and philosophical writings, Festa shows how sentimentality shaped communal and personal assertions of identity in an age of empire. Read in isolation, sentimental texts can be made to tell a simple story about the emergence of the modern psychological self. Placed in conversation with empire, however, sentimentality invites both psychological and cultural readings of the encounter between self and other. Sentimental texts, Festa claims, enabled readers to create powerful imagined relations to distant people. Yet these emotional bonds simultaneously threatened the boundaries between self and other, civilized and savage, colonizer and colonized. Festa argues that sentimental tropes and figures allowed readers to feel for others, while maintaining the particularity of the individual self. Sentimental identification thus operated as a form of differentiation as well as consolidation. Festa contends that global reach increasingly outstripped imaginative grasp during this era. Sentimentality became an important tool for writers on empire, allowing conquest to be portrayed as commerce and scenes of violence and exploitation to be converted into displays of benevolence and pity. Above all, sentimental texts used emotion as an important form of social and cultural distinction, as the attribution of sentience and feeling helped to define who would be recognized as human.

Often regarded as trivial and disposable, printed ephemera, such as tickets, playbills and handbills, was essential in the development of eighteenth-century culture. In this original study, richly illustrated with examples from across the period, Gillian Russell examines the emergence of the cultural category of printed ephemera, its relationship with forms of sociability, the history of the book, and ideas of what constituted the boundaries of literature and literary value. Russell explores the role of contemporary collectors such as Sarah Sophia Banks in preserving such material, arguing for 'ephemerology' as a distinctive strand of popular antiquarianism. Multi-disciplinary in scope, The Ephemeral Eighteenth Century reveals new perspectives on the history of theatre, the fiction of Maria Edgeworth and Jane Austen, and on the history of bibliography, as well as highlighting the continuing relevance of the concept of ephemerality to how we connect through social media today.

AT FAI RVI EW HEALTH SERVICES, a 22,000-employee integrated health system in Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota, our system-wide diversity and cultural competence initiative is marking its first decade of effort. We hired a director of diversity and established a central office of diversity for the system in early 2000. metro-area hospitals have been asking our patients their race/ethnicity, primary language preference for healthcare, and spiritual affiliation since 2004. Fairview Diversity Council took shape in early 2000 and since then has been joined by a coordinated set of six hospital- and site-based diversity teams - an advocacy and support network united by a common vision and strategic goals. diversity vision, developed by the Fairview Diversity Council in early 2000, remains evergreen: Our communities will choose Fairview first as employer, healthcare provider, and partner, and we will inspire employee pride, because we understand, respect, and leverage our differences to improve the lives of those we touch. This commentary represents for us a marker and a challenge to address those areas where we know we can make further and faster progress. FOUNDATIONAL LEVERS In our diversity and cultural competence work as an integrated health system, the following six key levers have formed the basis for our diversity change initiative and given every employee a way to take part, if they choose to do so: 1) Offers of direction, presence, involvement, and action from leaders at all levels 2) Systematic data collection and knowledge of that data 3) Community involvement in our diversity work 4) Establishment of the Office of Diversity as a central catalyst and consulting function to support action and foster learning 5) Empowerment of diversity advocates for their consultation, involvement, and support 6) Expectations for performance and competency for employees at all levels Following their benchmark study on hospitals, language and culture, loint Commission issued in 2008 a follow-up report titled One Size Does Not Fit All (Wilson-Stronks et al. 2008). This study summarized a framework for cultural competence work in hospitals and identified the following key elements: 1) Building a foundation 2) Acknowledging the needs of specific populations 3) Collecting and using data to improve services 4) Establishing internal and external collaborations levers that have been foundational for us over the past decade reflect to some degree Joint Commission's findings in their study of 60 hospitals. But because we framed our work as a change initiative, additional elements - a central facilitating function, the vital role of advocates, and the expectation of action by every employee - naturally also became part of our foundation. Using Joint Commission's framework as a basis for comparison in 2008 was a benefit to us. Principal investigator Amy Wilson-Stronks (2009) of Joint Commission says, The One Size Doesn't Fit All framework was developed based on an analysis of promising practices identified from the Hospitals, Language, and Culture study. framework is meant to help hospitals develop and employ practices to meet the diverse needs of the patients they serve. We have been so gratified to see both smaller hospitals and large hospital systems like the Fairview system, one of the judgment sample organizations from our original study, understand the framework and use it to evaluate their own efforts. GETTING REAL We heartily applaud the theme Time to Get Real! espoused by Tony Armada and Marilyn French Hubbard. For many of our hospital and healthcare systems, the attention to specific healthcare disparities is a major focus of the diversity work, and often the challenge is to determine which disparity to address first, and how. As have many other health systems, we evaluated our existing data on equity of care, dividing our considerations into four categories of equity: access, treatment, service, and outcomes. …

Concept mapping key elements and performance measures in a state nursing home-to-community transition project

BackgroundOlder adults are the most sedentary segment of society and high sedentary time is associated with poor health and wellbeing outcomes in this population. Identifying determinants of sedentary behaviour is a necessary step to develop interventions to reduce sedentary time.MethodsA systematic literature review was conducted to identify factors associated with sedentary behaviour in older adults. Pubmed, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO and Web of Science were searched for articles published between 2000 and May 2014. The search strategy was based on four key elements: (a) sedentary behaviour and its synonyms; (b) determinants and its synonyms (e.g. correlates, factors); (c) types of sedentary behaviour (e.g. TV viewing, sitting, gaming) and (d) types of determinants (e.g. environmental, behavioural). Articles were included in the review if specific information about sedentary behaviour in older adults was reported. Studies on samples identified by disease were excluded. Study quality was rated by means of QUALSYST. The full review protocol is available from PROSPERO (PROSPERO 2014: CRD42014009823). The analysis was guided by the socio-ecological model framework.ResultsTwenty-two original studies were identified out of 4472 returned by the systematic search. These included 19 cross-sectional, 2 longitudinal and 1 qualitative studies, all published after 2011. Half of the studies were European. The study quality was generally high with a median of 82 % (IQR 69–96 %) using Qualsyst tool. Personal factors were the most frequently investigated with consistent positive association for age, negative for retirement, obesity and health status. Only four studies considered environmental determinants suggesting possible association with mode of transport, type of housing, cultural opportunities and neighbourhood safety and availability of places to rest. Only two studies investigated mediating factors. Very limited information was available on contexts and sub-domains of sedentary behaviours.ConclusionFew studies have investigated determinants of sedentary behaviour in older adults and these have to date mostly focussed on personal factors, and qualitative studies were mostly lacking. More longitudinal studies are needed as well as inclusion of a broader range of personal and contextual potential determinants towards a systems-based approach, and future studies should be more informed by qualitative work.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12966-015-0292-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Lynn Hunt, the renowned professor of modern European history, has recently argued that the concept of human rights, in its fully developed form, was first articulated in the second half of the eighteenth century.1 While this assertion may be correct, it also raises the question as to how this concept developed. What previous ideas did the concept of human rights develop from, and where, when, and by whom were those earlier ideas first expressed? If the complex notion of human rights proclaimed in the American Declaration of Independence (1776) and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) did not come out of nowhere, then it is worth asking what ideas and values provided the basis for that eighteenth-century concept. This is not merely an academic question. If, as an ancient Greek proverb tells us, “the beginning is more than half the whole” (quoted by Plato in Laws 753e and Aristotle in the Nicomachean Ethics 1098b), then the origin of something in many ways determines its nature and character. Rachel Hall Sternberg (hereafter RHS) argues in The Ancient Greek Roots of Human Rights that the character-determining foundation of the eighteenth-century concept can be found in the historical, philosophical, and especially the dramatic works written by Athenians in the fifth and fourth centuries BCE. This is an important book that attempts to initiate a dialogue between classicists and early modern historians and should appeal to scholars of both periods.RHS admits, right at the outset (p. 2), that “the ancient Greeks never formally recognized human rights,” but she argues that the humane discourse of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was preceded by a “parallel wave” of humane discourse in classical Athens and that the Enlightenment philosophes consciously looked back to their Athenian forebears for inspiration. This complex argument takes up the first half of the book. RHS then discusses specific works of Greek literature that define, describe, and support four key elements of the concept of human rights. In the final chapter, she traces the transmission of these ideas from the Greeks to the Romans (especially Cicero and the Stoics), to the Renaissance, and finally to the classical education of early modern Europeans. Three excursuses focusing on thematically related topics (the idealism of eighteenth-century classicism, Xenophon’s innovative biography, The Education of Cyrus, and the tensions created when defenders of human rights own slaves) round out the book.The most compelling and original part of the book is the demonstration (in chapter 5) that Greek literary works articulated and championed four key components of human rights: the ideas of individuality and personhood, human dignity, freedom, and compassion. RHS begins the chapter with a quotation from Lynn Hunt, in which Hunt argues that “to have human rights, people had to be perceived as separate individuals who were capable of exercising moral judgment,” and that this perception did not emerge until the late eighteenth century.2 Taking issue with this belief, which she characterizes as long since outdated, RHS provides abundant evidence from ancient Greek literature demonstrating that the Greeks “definitely pioneered the Western version of respect for individual human beings . . . that would be reborn with the Renaissance and further developed during the Enlightenment” (p. 71). In fact, RHS argues persuasively that “what makes the Greeks special is that they created influential literary works that evoked and encouraged such awareness and acknowledged it as significant” (p. 75). Quoting from tragedies such as Aeschylus’ Agamemnon (458 BCE), Sophocles’ Ajax (442 BCE?) and Oedipus Rex (429 BCE?), and Euripides’ Medea (431 BCE), RHS shows that Greek tragedy “offered and continues to offer the world texts that richly depict the human mind.” She adds, “These texts antedate the famous Socratic aphorism, ‘the unexamined life is not worth living’ (Plato, Apology 38a), which insists that individuals with innerness have value” (p. 79).RHS then goes on to argue that three other core values that provide a foundation for the concept of human rights (human dignity, freedom, and compassion for others’ suffering) have their foundation in ancient Greek literature. RHS uses the character of Antigone, from Sophocles’ Antigone (441 BCE?), as an example of someone who epitomizes human dignity, as well as courage and moral autonomy, as she stands up to Creon’s unjust decree “while following her own consciousness of a higher law” (p. 81). Then, noting that “freedom . . . starts with protection from constraint and violence,” RHS points out that Solon laid the foundations for Athenian democracy by “abolishing debt slavery . . . [as] a privilege of citizenship” (p. 84). And while it is true that as the Athenians developed their democracy they continued to own slaves, their literature provides many examples of sympathy for the slave and sorrow for the enslaved person’s loss of freedom. Characters such as Cassandra in Aeschylus’ Agamemnon and Andromache in Euripides’ Trojan Women (415 BCE) poignantly describe the constraints on their freedom due to their change of status from noble to slave (p. 85). Finally, RHS notes (pp. 87–89) that compassion for suffering begins with Homer (e.g., Achilles’ pity for Priam in Iliad Book 24) and continues with Herodotus (e.g., the weeping of Harpagus, a Median nobleman, at the impending death of a royal baby, Hdt. 1.109), Sophocles (the compassion of the young Neoptolemus for the suffering of Philoctetes in the Philoctetes, 409 BCE), and Euripides (Trojan Women). While much more remains to be said on this topic, RHS has certainly shown that the core values that contribute to the concept of human rights were identified, explored, and championed by the ancient Greeks.While RHS has amply demonstrated her overall thesis, that the concept of human rights had its origins in ancient Greek thought, her specific argument, that those human values first found expression in classical Athens, is less compelling. There are so many examples of preclassical and non-Athenian authors who celebrate these values (e.g., Homer and Hesiod, the Greek lyric poets, and Herodotus, just to name a few), that the attempt to limit “the emergence of humane discourse” to fifth- and fourth-century Athens (p. 51) seems arbitrary and restrictive. The fact that, throughout the entire Odyssey (probably composed in Ionia in the eighth century BCE), the poet honors only one character with direct address, the enslaved swineherd Eumaeus, should make anyone think twice before claiming that the ideas of personhood, human dignity, freedom, and compassion originated in classical Athens. And in fact, Eumaeus proves himself to be one of the wisest, most courageous, and most generous characters in the epic. While RHS does mention some of these earlier and non-Athenian authors, she does not adequately discuss their work or acknowledge their substantial contributions to the developing concept of human rights.There are also a number of important points that RHS does not sufficiently explore. For example, she briefly mentions that the concept of “natural rights,” which developed in the Middle Ages through the merging of canon law and Roman law, contributed to the later concept of human rights (pp. 58 and 92), but she does not give even a cursory explanation of how this process occurred. Similarly, she notes that the eighteenth-century philosophes themselves acknowledged that they were inspired by Greek literature (pp. 3 and 22), but she does not provide either examples or elaboration.But perhaps it is churlish to criticize RHS for what she has not done, when what she has done is so valuable. She has decisively shown that the concept of human rights is continually evolving and that, while the first formal declaration of human rights may have come in the late eighteenth century, its roots go back to ancient Greek thought. The Ancient Greek Roots of Human Rights is a groundbreaking book and, like all pioneering works, raises further questions and opens up new areas of research. We can all be grateful to RHS for courageously venturing outside her own discipline to bring classicists and early modern historians into a dialogue that will hopefully provide new opportunities for collaboration.

Book Review| January 01 2020 Book Review: Exquisite Slaves: Race, Clothing, and Status in Colonial Lima, by Tamara J. Walker Exquisite Slaves: Race, Clothing, and Status in Colonial Lima, by Tamara J. Walker. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2017. 240 pages, 17 b/w illus. Hardcover $105.00, paperback $29.99, e-book $24.00. Reviewed by Julia McHugh. Julia McHugh Julia McHugh Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Latin American and Latinx Visual Culture (2020) 2 (1): 126–127. https://doi.org/10.1525/lavc.2020.210011 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Twitter LinkedIn Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Julia McHugh; Book Review: Exquisite Slaves: Race, Clothing, and Status in Colonial Lima, by Tamara J. Walker. Latin American and Latinx Visual Culture 1 January 2020; 2 (1): 126–127. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/lavc.2020.210011 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search nav search search input Search input auto suggest search filter All ContentLatin American and Latinx Visual Culture Search The viceregal Americas were a dynamic setting for global trade networks that extended in transatlantic, transpacific, and inter-American directions. Luxury goods, such as silks, yarns, fabrics, tapestries, ivory, ceramics, wines, foodstuffs, and medicines from China, the Philippines, and East Asia flooded American markets through the ports of Acapulco, Mexico, and Lima, Peru. These products, in addition to those from Europe and Central America, made their way to South American markets, despite numerous regulations imposed by the Spanish crown to curb the unrestricted entry and circulation of luxury goods in colonial society. Walker's Exquisite Slaves is a detailed and animated examination of one of the most coveted types of luxury goods in viceregal Peru: fine textiles. While clothing has been a popular topic for historians and art historians alike, garments have been examined largely in disconnect with the subjects who owned and wore them in a variety of public and private... You do not currently have access to this content.

The Introduction surveys existing scholarship on Anglo-Nordic relations during the period in question and establishes our argument about the centrality of cultural exchange to the development of romanticisms and romantic nationalisms in Britain and the Nordic countries. It focuses on key elements such as the development of antiquarian interest in the ancient culture of the North during the eighteenth century, the emergence of new ‘romantic’ attitudes to nature and society, and the transformative impact on Britain and ‘the North’ of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.

Representations of votes based on pairwise information: Monotonicity versus consistency

The concept of ‘profession’ was largely taken for granted in sociology until the 1960s. Sociologists were concerned with defining what a profession was – what occupational groups could claim professional status – rather than with analyzing the role of professionals in society. Subsequently, considerable debate has developed about professions’ role and status, and attention has shifted from attempting to define ‘profession’ to analyzing professionalizing strategies – the steps taken by occupational groups aspiring to be recognized as professions. The idea of a ‘profession’ emerged from the mediaeval university, but until the eighteenth century ‘profession’ and ‘occupation’ were not separate terms. Functionalist accounts of the professions emphasized the functions they played for society and for their own members. Key elements in any claim to professional status seem to be autonomy or control over work, a clearly defined monopoly over an area of work and a knowledge base.

This chapter is archivally based: it lays out three broad traditions of thinking about prayer that were developed across the eighteenth century and inherited by the Romantics, drawing on sermons, essays, polemics, guides to prayer, and other genres of religious print culture. The mainstream tradition, associated with Anglicanism, is ‘reasonable devotion’, which attempts to give a pragmatic account of prayer as a duty and a discipline of self. Elements of this were extended in the rationalist tradition, which attempted to exorcise the archaic and supernatural overtones of prayer and ended up challenging some of its key elements (e.g. address to God, petition). Finally, the Evangelical Revival espoused an emotionally intense, transformational idea of prayer as the soul’s most fundamental voice of joy and despair. The chapter concludes by reviewing prayer, as an idea, on the cusp of the Romantic era.