The Sacred Federation of Tibet and the Mongol Empire

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This article re-examines the history of the Mongol Empire’s rule over Tibet, analyzing the complex institutional and religious relationships between the Mongol Empire and Tibet from an innovative perspective. We find that, unlike its military conquests in other parts of the world, the Mongol Empire actually formed a kind of federation with Tibet based on Buddhism. The Mongol Empire embraced Tibetan Buddhism as its state religion and venerated the head of the Sakya school as a spiritual guide. Concurrently, the establishment of the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs in the Mongol capital served as a nominal governing body over Tibet, while in reality, it ensured a significant degree of autonomy for the region. Furthermore, the leaders of the Mongol Empire felt endowed with the legitimacy to conquer the world after being blessed by Tibetan Buddhism as Mahakala, the dark incarnation of Avalokiteshvara. In addition, the article also provides a detailed account of the prosperity of Buddhism within the Mongol Empire, in terms of its economic, artistic, and philosophical aspects. The discovery of this evidence is of great significance, since it not only supports reinterpretation of the historical evolution of the Mongol Empire and Tibet, but also allows us to observe the status of Tibetan Buddhism in the Mongol Empire from a new perspective, and to explore the unexpected institutional innovations of the federation reflected in the Mongol-Tibetan relationship.