The Role of Local Communities in Sustainable Land and Forest Management

Policy makers, scientists and civil society are involved in the development of criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management (SFM), reflecting the growing worldwide demand for addressing sustainable development and environmental governance management goals. Such frameworks have been largely derived from expert-led or community-based approaches. This article details the identification process of criteria and indicators (C & I) based on the international principles of SFM through the analysis of a hybrid approach that uses both a top-down (TD) and a bottom-up (BU) approach. The aim of this article is to discuss how the two approaches have worked to incorporate the different views, opinions and experiences of experts and stakeholders. National-level C & I are then compared with those at the local level, making specific reference to sustainable community forest (CF) management. For the TD approach, a Delphi survey was conducted where 121 experts shared their knowledge, experience and judgements in assessing a set of 72 indicators with regard to the applicability, practicality and importance of national, regional and CF management in Nepal. For the BU approach, C & I for CF management were developed with the direct involvement of various stakeholders. It was shown that such a hybrid approach is feasible from a methodological point of view, but a framework is needed by the government to more fully utilize the opportunities of the C & I development process in the SFM context. The results of this study also help to bridge the gap between the ad hoc planning of decision makers and the requirement for a holistic management system, which includes participatory processes. Based on the conclusions of this study, general recommendations for the methodological design of C & I development in similar studies are given.

Global warming and climate change have become one of the most pressing environmental issues facing global society today. Efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, especially carbon dioxide (CO2), have become the main focus in efforts to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change. One of the instruments introduced to reduce carbon emissions is carbon trading. In Indonesia, the social forestry program is an initiative that aims to empower local communities in sustainable forest management, which is closely related to the concept of carbon forests. Through community participation in social forestry programs, it is hoped that harmony can be created between the interests of nature conservation and sustainable economic development. This article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the concept of carbon trading, its basic principles, benefits, and implementation through social forestry in Indonesia. This research uses a literature review method to present a comprehensive overview of this topic, by combining and analyzing information from various available sources. By understanding the basic concepts of carbon trading, operational principles, and involving communities in forest management, Indonesia has great potential to reduce carbon emissions and improve the welfare of local communities while preserving tropical forests that are rich in biodiversity. Keywords: Russia-Ukraine War, Global Economy, Geopolitical Risk

Despite the socio-economic and environmental benefits of forests globally, these ecosystems have been degraded due to poor governance. Effective governance in the forest sector calls for the identification of concrete elements within the administrative sector by systematically analysing the current situation and direct efforts towards improving the systems. A functional governing system would promote positive changes and progress by identifying challenges and gaps and come up with guidelines geared towards strengthening global co-operation. Our study explored the various factors influencing effective governance in forest management and protection in Kenya, using the case of Mt. Elgon Forest Reserve. Purposive sampling design was used to collect data through structured questionnaires and interactive interviews among forest managers, forest adjacent communities and other relevant stakeholders. The study shows that majority of the local communities living adjacent to the forest have been sensitized about forest conservation, however, the capacity building did not entail technical forestry operations. This has hampered effective involvement of the communities in forest management. Majority of the forest management staff are well trained in forest management and therefore could implement sustainable management strategies, however, due to insufficient fund, these strategies could not be fully implemented. Most of the members of the local communities are not economically empowered and mainly derive their livelihood from the forest leading to overexploitation. This strains sustainable utilization of the forest resources. Cultural practices such as livestock grazing and living within the forest are hampering sustainable management of the forest. The study suggests that successful management of the forest is limited by inadequate involvement of local communities. This has led to apathy and degradation of the forest by members who feel that their views are not sort in the management of the forest. The study recommends multi-sectoral planning and representation of sectors involved in forest management and conservation Keywords: participatory forest management, forest adjacent communities, forest products, sustainable forest management DOI: 10.7176/JESD/11-12-06 Publication date: June 30th 2020

Community-Based Forest Management (CBFM) in Cross River State (CRS) was investigated with a view to understanding its efficiency and effectiveness as a tool for sustainable forest management in the State. Four sets of questionnaire were administered to forestry officials; forest edge communities; timber dealers/sawmillers; and relevant Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs).Three-stage sampling technique was adopted to sample six communities. The stages of sampling included: senatorial districts, Local Government Areas and communities. Data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics. The performance of CBFM was assessed against the ATO/ITTO’s Criteria and Indicators for the Sustainable Management of African Natural Tropical Forests. Results show that the average size of community forests was between 101 and over 1000 ha per community. The level of awareness about community forest management was about 96% while 86% of the respondents participated in CBFM activities. The most significant gain of CBFM has been the meaningful partnership between the Cross River State Forestry Commission (CRSFC) and the forest edge communities in protecting and managing the forest resources. The existing benefit- sharing formula of CBFM proceeds is 1:4 in favour of government for governmentestablished plantations, while communities have 7:3 of proceeds derived from community forests. The current sharing formula for the products obtained from reserved natural forests is 1:1. We suggest that a mutually acceptable formula should be worked out among the stakeholders. Some of the problems and challenges confronting the implementation of CBFM in the state include: inadequate encouragement and cooperation among some members of the communities; inadequate incentives (seedlings, etc) and equipment (farm tools, etc); and capacity building; insufficient monitoring and evaluation by the relevant staff of the Forestry Commission. CBFM has done fairly well in certain aspects of sustainable forest management. However, aspects of maintenance of multiple functions of forests; creation of enabling environment; state economic and fiscal policies, policy to encourage forestry enterprises; effective monitoring and evaluation of forest management policy and adequate mechanisms for law enforcement have to be taken more seriously if CBFM would serve as a veritable tool for sustainable forest management in Cross river State, Nigeria Key words: Stakeholders’ participation, benefit sharing, forest resources, sustainability

Community participation and forest management dynamics in rural Cameroon

This study investigates the influence of public participation on sustainable forest management (SFM) in Sokoto State, Nigeria. A region faced with severe forest degradation due to anthropogenic and climatic pressures. The research focuses on the demographic characteristics of the respondents, the effects of public participation on sustainable forest management practices (Plantation establishment and management, harvesting practices, Afforestation and Reforestation and Forest Restoration), benefits and challenges of involving local communities in forest management. Data were collected through structured questionnaires involving 115 participants. An interview was also conducted in 10 organizations on SFM. The data were analyzed descriptively. The research reveals a nearly equal gender distribution (51.3%, male, and 48.7%, female) with the majority (89.5%) between 21-30 years and majorly (72.2%) students by occupation. The research also highlights plantation establishment (57.4%) and afforestation/reforestation (29.6%) as the predominant sustainable forest management practices in Sokoto. Findings reveal that public participation significantly enhances SFM, with 77.4% of respondents reporting a positive impact. Environmental (57.4%) and educational (27.8%) benefits were the most perceived benefits. Micro-climate regulation (43.5%) was the major environmental benefit observed. Despite these gains, key challenges such as lack of awareness (45.2%) and funding constraints (32.2%) hinder broader engagement and effective public participation. The study concludes that economic incentives and public awareness should be emphasized, to sustain SFM initiatives. This paper draws attention to the essence of participatory approaches that align local community involvement with environmental restoration strategies, providing a blueprint for forest management in semi-arid regions.

Community-based forest management has increasingly gained popularity in many parts of developing countries. Although the roles of women in forest conservation, management and sustainable utilisation, as well as livelihood improvement, are of paramount importance, it is still scarce and unaddressed in new forest management approaches. Structured questionnaires were administered to 248 Nyangores community forest association members to capture the forest conservation activities of women, determine their role in community forest management and evaluate their socio-economic benefits. Results indicate tree seedling propagation (87.1%), monitoring and evaluation (M&E) (85.1%), and protection of regenerates (84.7%) as the major forest conservation activities. Minor roles included timber harvesting (22.9%), enrichment planting, silvicultural operations (12.9%), and firefighting (8.5%). Accrued socio-economic benefits as a result of women’s role in forest management and conservation were freshwater (95.6%) and firewood (94.8%). These results suggest the incorporation of both genders as a pre-requisite for the success of community forest conservation programs in Mau Conservancy, Kenya.

Community forest management led to rapid local forest gain in Nepal: A 29 year mixed methods retrospective case study

Forest communities play a vital role in the conservation of forest resources. Understanding communities’ use, attitudes and perceptions of forests and management measures is significant in attaining conservation goals and reducing forest resource use conflicts. This study sought to assess local community’ forest resources use and their perception towards forest status, use and management. Data was collected through household surveys using semi-structured questionnaires, participant observation, Key Informant Interviews (KII), and Focus Group Discussions (FGD). A total of 112 respondents from three adjacent villages within 5 km from the forest boundary were randomly sampled for the household survey while descriptive statistics were used for data analysis. Most (94.6%) of the households reported using products from forests. These products formed an integral part of the households’ energy needs, construction materials, medicine, income generation and daily dietary needs. Firewood was the most collected product from the forest (76.4%) whereas bush meat was the least (4.7%). There were mixed views on the forest management with more than half (54.5%) expressing dissatisfaction with the current management regime citing insecure land tenure system, inadequate integration of the community in forest management and corruption. There was perceived forest degradation due to illegal logging, illegal grazing, forest fires, climate change and encroachment for farming. For sustainable forest management practice therefore, there is a need for incorporating Indigenous knowledge (IK) in forest management plans and putting in place grievance address mechanisms to cater for the needs of local communities when designing forest policies and implementing forest restoration programs.   Key words: Cherang’any hills, Community Forest Association, non-timber forest products, indigenous knowledge, sustainable forest management, forest restoration.

This chapter presents the background of the inception of community-based forest management (CBFM) in tropical countries, and in particular Bangladesh. It also sets the aim(s) of this book. The CBFM programs have been promoted in many countries as an innovative and potential approach to improved forest management and conservation strategies with a comprehensive blend of ecological and socioeconomic objectives. Many countries have now developed, or are in the process of developing, changes to national policies and legislation that institutionalize the CBFM. The government of Bangladesh has also put emphasize on the CBFM since the early 1980s and a number of forestry projects have been implemented with the participation of local community having both success and failure in intended project outcomes. In this book, we aim to shed light on evolution of the CBFM in Bangladesh and critically evaluate the performance of various CBFM practices. Stress is given on how to sustain the CBFM and integrate these into (i) carbon forestry projects (e.g., REDD+) for meeting the triple benefits of forest management: poverty reduction, forest conservation, and climate change mitigation; (ii) mutual rotating fund for creating alternative income generation opportunities so that dependency on forests is reduced and (iii) corporate social responsibility activities of corporate agencies so that they provide funding for environmental conservation and social development. These strategies might facilitate sustainability of CBFM in Bangladesh. So far our knowledge goes, there is no such book publication available in Bangladesh. Therefore, we believe that this publication would fill this gap and be useful for scholars, policy makers, and students as a reference book.

The article comprehensively examines the current factors and conditions under which sustainable management of natural resources can use functional tools aimed at maintaining the biodiversity of Ukraine’s forest ecosystems under prolonged climate change and anthropogenic pressure. The leading approaches to forest ecosystem management aimed at ensuring high environmental sustainability and socio-economic efficiency of resource provision have been studied and identified. The purpose of the research is to develop conceptual foundations of sustainable natural resource management for supporting the biodiversity of Ukraine’s forest ecosystems and to propose strategies for their practical implementation. The study is based on statistical data from the State Forest Resources Agency of Ukraine, digital satellite images, and GIS technologies for mapping of forested areas within Cherkasy region. An integrated management model has been developed that combines biodiversity monitoring, sustainable forestry, and community involvement, along with strategies development for biodiversity enhancement, including the expansion of protected areas, adaptation to climate change, and certification of forest stands across Ukraine. It was proposed to create an open-access GIS platform for decision-making that takes into account species richness thresholds and uniformity indices. A sustainable management model for fact-checking forest resources has been developed, promoting the introduction of selective logging practices, the expansion of protected areas, and the autonomy of local communities in forest management. A set of strategic approaches to the conservation and restoration of biodiversity in Ukraine's forest ecosystems has been proposed. The testing of forest management models with local communities to strengthen the legitimacy of environmental decisions and develop ecotourism within forest areas has been further developed. Key words: natural resources, forest ecosystems, biodiversity, flora, forest fauna, protected areas, forest ecology, sustainable nature management.

Forest benefit analysis is vital in ensuring sustainable community-based natural resources management. Forest depletion and degradation are key issues in rural Zimbabwe and strategies to enhance sustainable forest management are continually sought. This study was carried out to assess the impact of forests on communities from Nyanga, Guruve and Zvimba districts of Zimbabwe. It is based on a Big Lottery Fund project implemented by Progressio-UK and Environment Africa. It focuses on identifying replicable community forest and land management strategies and the level of benefits accruing to the community. Analysis of change was based on the Income and Food Security and Forest benefits, which also constitutes the tools used during the research. The study confirms the high rate of deforestation and the increased realisation by communities to initiate practical measures aimed at protecting and sustaining forest and land resources from which they derive economic and social benefits. The results highlight the value of community structures (Farmer Field Schools and Environmental Action Groups) as conduits for natural resource management. The interconnectivity among forests, agricultural systems and the integral role of people are recognised as key to climate change adaptation.

Community-based Forest Management (CBFM) has emerged as a vital tool for promoting sustainable forest management and improving the livelihoods of local communities dependent on forest resources. This paper examines the role of forest certification within CBFM, mainly Village Land Forest Reserves (VLFR), in enhancing the livelihoods of communities and forest governance in the southern part of Tanzania. The villages were selected purposively using five criteria, such as the existence of an up-to-date management plan, good record keeping, an active and functional forest committee, good experience in implementing Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) group certification and forest size. Mixed-methods approach, including household surveys, key informant interviews and field observations, were used to collect information. During the household surveys, random sampling was used to select households. The sample size of 85 households were surveyed, where 39 were from Likawage and 46 from Nanjirinji village. Content analysis was used for qualitative data, where the data were compiled and responses coded, identifying the range of responses to each question, creating matrices in SPSS that cross-listed each response variable by village. These were done through descriptive statistics, where measures of central tendency, such as means, median, percentage and counts, were computed. The results indicate that certified forests improve communities’ livelihood through increased employment opportunities, access to markets for forest products and better forest governance. Additionally, certification has contributed to capacity-building and the empowerment of local communities in forest management. Challenges such as limited financial resources, inadequate knowledge, and logistical constraints hindered the full realisation of certification benefits. The study concludes that forest certification offers significant potential for improving livelihoods. It reveals significant social, environmental and economic benefits, where 92 and 98 percent of Likawage and Nanjirinji A households, respectively, responded that there are some improvements in education, healthcare and food security. To maximise the benefits of forest certification, efforts should focus on strengthening market access, capacity building, and policy support. Improving trade linkages, infrastructure, and value-added processing can enhance economic returns for certified communities. Expanding training programs on sustainable forestry, business skills, and cooperative management will empower locals to better utilise certification benefits.

Community forest management (CFM) is increasingly recognised as a potentially effective way of maintaining forests, especially in the Global South. Despite the growing adoption of this approach, the results have been mixed and there is a need to explore both the ways in which a wider range of benefits can be obtained and how CFM can be implemented more effectively. New forest legislation on community forest management in the Southern Region of Ethiopia in 2012, alongside the development of a highly devolved method of CFM, provided a natural experiment for testing the effectiveness of this method as a way of maintaining forest and also supporting biodiversity conservation and carbon storage. The specific circumstances and details of the methods applied also provided an opportunity to compare this approach against other experiences of CFM to assess factors seen to be influencing success. This study was undertaken in an area of montane forest in south-west Ethiopia, which includes some of the remaining stands of wild Coffea arabica, and so it also sought to create supportive conditions for the in situ conservation of the wild coffee. Analyses of this approach to CFM over the six years show that the loss of forest was reduced to 0.18% per annum in the CFM managed areas compared to 2.6% per annum in the non-CFM forest, while biodiversity, in terms of species diversity, richness and evenness of distribution, was maintained in the natural forest managed under CFM. Carbon storage also increased in the natural forest managed under CFM. While the long-term results will only be seen after several decades, the findings show that the use of a highly devolved form of CFM, responding to felt needs and building up a community of practice were some of the positive influences which helped in achieving multiple impacts towards sustainable forest management and wild coffee conservation.

In 2000, Sao Hill Forest, the biggest state-owned plantation in Tanzania, was forced to adopt "community forest management" - a paradigm usually adopted in protecting only natural forests. We hope to contribute to the scholarship on forest management by using this unusual case study - taken from plantation forests. Research on community or participatory forest management has focused on natural forests - but plantations offer different issues to consider. We argue that the state was compelled to adopt, but also adapt to the model of community management in order to fit a neo-liberal donor context while, on a practical level, protecting it from local environmental hazards. To contextualise this historical case-study, we explain why Sao Hill stagnated and then examine the survival strategies adopted by the managers at the plantation. We then explore the relationship of the forest project with the surrounding communities, highlighting different local and vernacular responses to what came to be understood as "community forest management". We use this case study to examine this idiographic application of community resource management, in order to demonstrate the real-world use of environmental history in informing current policy decisions.