The role of history vs. demography in shaping genetic population structure across an ecotone: chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) as a case study

ABSTRACTRecent advances in molecular ecology allow better assessment of the role of ecological and evolutionary processes in determining the dynamics of genetic diversity in natural populations. The chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) is abundant and continuously distributed in the mesic Mediterranean regions of Israel, becoming scarce and patchily distributed in the arid Negev Desert. This demographic transition occurs across a main environmental transition, the Northern Negev ecotone. Populations of chukars along this gradient have been shown to differ from other populations in morphology, bilateral asymmetry, and in allozyme variation. The aim of this study is to infer whether historical (i.e. secondary contact of formerly vicariant populations) or recurrent demographic events (i.e. restriction to gene flow across the ecotone) have shaped the observed patterns of genetic diversity in chukar populations in Israel. We analysed mtDNA control‐region sequences in 216 chukars collected from 28 localities (five distinct geographical regions). Results show that (1) average haplotype diversity is high (h = 0.93) while haplotype divergence is low (π= 0.8%), suggesting that extant populations diversified recently; (2) mtDNA gene diversity does not significantly differ across the distribution range; and (3) haplotype distribution differs among the sampling locations (amova; P < 0.00031). Mantel test and autocorrelation analyses indicate that isolation‐by‐distance may explain the geographical partitioning of genetic diversity. These patterns have likely been produced by complex dynamics between past fragmentation of northern vs. intermediate and southern populations. Late Pleistocene climatic changes, fostering cycles of range contraction and expansion, may have led to genetic differentiation in allopatry, followed by restricted gene flow across secondary contact zones.

Effects of environmental factors on the population genetic structure in chukar partridge ( Alectoris chukar)

In this research, the genetic peculiarities of the common partridge (Alectoris chukar) have been investigated using a non-invasive sampling method and microsatellite markers in six loci. During 2014 and 2015, one hundred feather samples have been collected from four northwestern provinces of Iran. Our findings indicated that in Ilam, Kermanshah, and Hersin, there are two distinct subpopulations that have been diverged from other populations (Fst = 0.1). The highest diversity was recorded among the Kordestan populations, which can be related to the traditional culture of target species relocation, releasing in different places by the locals. The highest allelic frequency of 13.15 (and effective allelic frequency of 20) was recorded in Marivan subpopulation, which can be related to winter sampling along with the species' narrow migration routes to a warmer region. Because of this, the later subpopulation also showed deviation from the Hardy-Wienberg equation as well. Finally, two stepwise and two steps mutation models didn’t indicate any historical bottleneck, then the species currently face no serious threats.

In this study, nine non linear growth curve models were used to determine the goodness of fit by the body weight measurements of the total number of 178 partridges(Alectoris chukar), 93 females, and 85 males, respectively. The R 2(coefficients of determination) values for the total partridges, females and males in Brody, Gompertz, Logistic, von Bertalanffy, asymptote regression,exponential, Monomolecular, Richards and Weibull-type were 0.985, 0.980 and 0.984, 0.997, 0.998 and 0.998, 0.996, 0.999 and 0.999, 0.995, 0.995 and 0.996, 0.985, 0.980 and 0.984, 0.891, 0.871 and 0.892, 0.985, 0.980 and 0.984, 0.997, 0.999 and 0.999, 0.997, 0.999 and 0.999, respectively. The R 2 values for Gompertz, Logistic, von Bertalanffy, Richards and Weibull-type were >0.99, while the exponential (<0.90) had the lowest. What’s more, the Gompertz, Logistic, Richards and Weibull-type models best described the data because of lower MSE (mean square error), AIC(Akaike’s information criteria) and BIC(Schwarz Bayesian information criterion), higher adj. R 2(Adjusted coefficient of determination) and r(the correlation coefficient between measured body weight and estimated body weight) and there was not an autocorrelation between the residual values. As a result, based on goodness of fit criteria; R 2, adj.R 2, MSE, r, AIC, BIC values, the Weibull-type model best described live weight data of the Partridges(Alectoris chukar).

1. The aim of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics of meloxicam (MLX, 1 mg/kg body weight (BW)), ketoprofen (KETO, 2 mg/kg BW), and tolfenamic acid (TA, 2 mg/kg BW) in chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) following intravenous (IV) administration. 2. Twenty-four healthy chukar partridges were randomly divided into three equal groups (n = 8) as MLX, KETO and TA. Plasma concentrations of MLX, KETO and TA were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography−ultraviolet detection and analysed using non-compartmental analysis. 3. No adverse effects were determined in chukar partridges after IV administration of MLX, KETO and TA. MLX, KETO and TA were detected in plasma up to 10, 12 and 12 h, respectively. The terminal elimination half-life of MLX, KETO and TA was 1.22, 1.77 and 1.95 h, respectively. MLX, KETO and TA exhibited volumes of distribution at a steady-state of 0.03, 0.23 and 0.41 l/kg BW, respectively. The total plasma clearance of MLX, KETO and TA was 0.02, 0.11 and 0.15 l/h/kg, respectively. The extraction ratios for MLX, KETO and TA were calculated as 0.002, 0.011 and 0.016, respectively. 4. MLX, KETO and TA offer treatment in chukar partridges for various conditions with an absence of adverse reactions and properties such as short elimination half-life and low volume of distribution. However, there is a need to establish the safety and adverse effects of repeated administration, pharmacokinetics of other administration routes and pharmacological efficacy of MLX, KETO and TA in chukar partridges.

The chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) is distributed in north and northwest of China, in mountainous areas that were heavily affected by cyclic climate and landscape changes during the last Pleistocene glaciations. Some partridge populations have colonized and expanded their present ranges only after deglaciation and recent deforestation by human. Consequently, partridges from different areas could be genetically differentiated. In this study, a 1152–1154 bp portion of the mitochondrial DNA control region were analyzed for all 279 specimens collected from 28 populations through their distribution in China. A total number of 91 haplotypes were defined by 113 variable sites. The mean haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity were 0.939 ± 0.008 and 0.0030 ± 0.0017, respectively, for chukar. Haplotype diversity among the 28 populations varied from 0.600 ± 0.215 (HH) to 1.000 ± 0.272 (SBC), and nucleotide diversity ranged from 0.0006 ± 0.0007 (HJ) to (0.0071 ± 0.0041) (HEG). The nucleotide diversity of chukar was descending from west to east and a possible historical scenario might be that A. chukar inhabited central Asia, and then dispersed eastward. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that there was no distinct phylogeographic structure in chukar populations in China. Haplotype network of chukar was star-like with some common haplotypes shared by different samples came from different populations as center. Both unstructured phylogeographic tree and star-like haplotype network are signatures of population expansion.

Balcioğlu, M.S., Rizilkaya, K., Karabağ, K., Alkan, S., Yolcu, H.İ. and Şahin, E.2009. Comparison of growth characteristics of chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) raised in captivity. J. Appl. Anim. Res., 35: 21–24. This study was carried out to estimate growth curve of chukar partridges and to compare the parameter estimates based on Gompertz, Bertalanffy and Logistic models. The growth curve functions were fitted to the observed data individually by using non-linear regression procedure with Marquart algorithm of SAS, NLIN procedure. Gompertz model (with highest determination coefficient and the lowest residual variance) was found to be the best to determine the growth pattern. Sex had significant effect on the estimates of parameter A and weight and age at inflection point within each model.

Restocking from captive-reared red-legged partridges ( Alectoris rufa ) is a frequent practice in some Spanish regions, due to the strong decrease of wild populations size in the last years. Chukar partridges ( A. chukar ), which never lived as wild game birds in Spain, are more prolific and efficient meat producers, being legally bred in many Spanish farms to be directly sent to slaughterhouses. Releasing foreign partridges species or hybrids is strictly forbidden by hunting and environment preservation laws. However, eventual hybridization with chukar partridges in breeding farms is a worrying possibility as, in many cases, farms produce birds for both meat and restocking purposes. DNA analyses might be useful to elucidate the genetic purity of wild or farmed partridges. Single Strand Conformation Polymorphisms (SSCP´s) were studied on individual DNA samples from Spanish supposed red-legged and captive chukar partridges. Two mitochondrial (Cytochrome B and D-loop) and one nuclear (Ribosomal DNA-intervening transcribed spacer, ITS) regions were considered for Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) design and further polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The results suggest that these techniques might identify interspecific A. rufa x A. chukar hybrids among wild and captive supposed red-legged partridges by detecting chukar partridge ancestors in their genealogies. On the other hand, these markers showed intra population genetic variability.

The use of tritiated water (TOH) to estimate total body water (TBW) and total water turnover rate was validated in chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) and sand partridges (Ammoperdix heyi). For six chukar partridges weighing between 315 to 475 g, TOH equilibration with body fluids was less than 45 min after intramuscular or intravenous injections. Mean TOH space in eight chukar partridges was 99.8% of the mean TBW measured by desiccation with individuals ranging between 97.9 and 103.2%. TOH space best approximated TBW when TBW was calculated by using the mean body mass for a bird weighed at TOH injection and at TOH equilibration. Total water intake as estimated by TOH ranged between 90.7 and 113.3% of measured water intake in three sand and three chukar partridges, birds ranging in mass from 145 to 446 g. We conclude that the TOH method provides accurate estimations of TBW and water turnover rates in birds. For birds of up to 500-g body mass, we recommend 45 min for TOH equilibration with body fluids, and intramuscular injections of 0.05 muCi TOH/g body mass for TBW estimations and 0.1 muCi TOH/g body mass for water turnover estimations.

BackgroundClimatic and topographic changes function as key drivers in shaping genetic structure and cladogenic radiation in many organisms. Southern Africa has an exceptionally diverse tortoise fauna, harbouring one-third of the world’s tortoise genera. The distribution of Psammobates tentorius (Kuhl, 1820) covers two of the 25 biodiversity hotspots in the world, the Succulent Karoo and Cape Floristic Region. The highly diverged P. tentorius represents an excellent model species for exploring biogeographic and radiation patterns of reptiles in Southern Africa.ResultsWe investigated genetic structure and radiation patterns against temporal and spatial dimensions since the Miocene in the Psammobates tentorius species complex, using multiple types of DNA markers and niche modelling analyses. Cladogenesis in P. tentorius started in the late Miocene (11.63–5.33 Ma) when populations dispersed from north to south to form two geographically isolated groups. The northern group diverged into a clade north of the Orange River (OR), followed by the splitting of the group south of the OR into a western and an interior clade. The latter divergence corresponded to the intensification of the cold Benguela current, which caused western aridification and rainfall seasonality. In the south, tectonic uplift and subsequent exhumation, together with climatic fluctuations seemed responsible for radiations among the four southern clades since the late Miocene. We found that each clade occurred in a habitat shaped by different climatic parameters, and that the niches differed substantially among the clades of the northern group but were similar among clades of the southern group.ConclusionClimatic shifts, and biome and geographic changes were possibly the three major driving forces shaping cladogenesis and genetic structure in Southern African tortoise species. Our results revealed that the cladogenesis of the P. tentorius species complex was probably shaped by environmental cooling, biome shifts and topographic uplift in Southern Africa since the late Miocene. The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) may have impacted the distribution of P. tentorius substantially. We found the taxonomic diversify of the P. tentorius species complex to be highest in the Greater Cape Floristic Region. All seven clades discovered warrant conservation attention, particularly Ptt-B–Ptr, Ptt-A and Pv-A.

The Chukar Partridge (Alectoris chukar, Galliformes) is one of the most important game birds in its native range, spanning from the Balkans to eastern Asia, and the regions of Europe, North America and New Zealand where it was introduced. Previous studies found two main genetic lineages of the species forming an eastern and a western clade. Chukar Partridges are raised in game farms and released to supplement natural populations for shooting in the USA, Canada, Greece, and Turkey. To explore intraspecific genetic structure, phylogeography, and possible genetic admixture events of A. chukar in Turkey, we genotyped individuals from fourteen wild and five captive populations at two mitochondrial and ten microsatellite DNA loci in. Wild and farmed Chukar Partridge samples were analyzed together to investigate possible influences of intraspecific hybridizations. We found that the farmed chukars, which mainly (85%) cluster into the eastern clade, and wild ones were genetically distinct. The latter could be separated into six management units (MUs), with partridges from Gökçeada Island in the Aegean Sea forming the most divergent population. Intraspecific hybridization was detected between wild and captive populations. This phenomenon causes rampant introgression and homogenization. The phylogeographic analysis revealed admixture among wild populations; nevertheless, this did not impair pointing to Anatolia as likely having a “refugia-within-refugia” structure. We recommend that the genetic structure of Chukar Partridge and its MUs be taken into account when developing the policy of hunting, production, and release to preserve the genetic integrity of this species.

In recent years, the use of the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) for cynegenetic purposes has increased dramatically, and captive-bred individuals are released to reinforce wild populations. A problem appears at the farm level where partridges can be crossed with non-native species that are better adapted to captivity, like Alectoris chukar. In this study we use a set of eight RAPD markers to identify a possible hybridization of A.rufa with A.chukar partridges. A total of 1510 individuals were analysed, grouped into pools of five birds each. We obtained a frequency of genetic introgression in red-legged partridge near to 50%. These results show that a high percentage of hybridization in captive populations of Spanish partridges is present, and that more thorough control systems should be established in breeding farms for re-stocking purposes.

Amac: Bu arastirmada, keklik etlerinde Listeria spp. ve patojen tur olan Listeria monocytogenes’in varligi arastirilarak insidensinin ve dolayisiyla halk sagligi bakimindan oneminin ortaya konmasi amaclandi.Gerec ve Yontem: Arastirmada, 10 erkek ve 10 disi olmak uzere 20 adet keklik eti kullanildi. Numuneler, keklik yetistiriciligi yapilan ozel bir ciftlikten temin edildi. Kanatli kesiminin yapildigi ozel bir kesimhanede kesilip aseptik sartlarda soguk kosullar altinda laboratuara getirilip analize alindi. Listeria spp.’nin izolasyon ve identifikasyonunda Food and Drug Administration (FDA) tarafindan bildirilen yontem kullanildi.Bulgular: Incelenen 20 keklik numunesinden bir erkek ve bir disi olmak uzere 2’sinin (%10) Listeria spp. ile kontamine oldugu tespit edildi. Kontamine iki numuneden izole edilen 10 izolatin 5’i (%50) L. innocua, 4’u (%40) L. grayi ve 1’i (%10) L. welshimeri olarak identifiye edildi. Oneri: Elde edilen bulgular, keklik etinin halk sagligi acisindan risk olusturabilecegini ve bazi onlemlerin alinmasi gerektigini ortaya koymaktadir. Bu amacla, ozellikle yetistirme ve kesimhane isletmelerinin hijyen kalitesinin yukseltilmesi, capraz bulasmalarin onlenmesi ve tuketim asamasina kadar soguk zincirin saglanmasinin onem arz ettigi kanaatine varilmistir.

Experiments were conducted to determine whether chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) chicks would develop protective immunity after inoculation with coccidia. Young chukar chicks in battery cages inoculated with 100 or more oocysts of Eimeria kofoidi or Eimeria legionensis had significant protection at challenge 4 wk later, as measured by greatly reduced oocyst shedding and improved weight gain as compared with unvaccinated, challenged controls. However, when birds were housed in litter pens and vaccinated by various regimens (including two species of chukar coccidia at 100/dose), coccidiosis rapidly spread through all treatments and caused significant mortality. Vaccination with Coccivac-T or with 100 oocysts of Eimeria dispersa did not prevent mortality resulting from accidental contamination, and feed treatment with a Lactobacillus competitive-exclusion product had no benefit. Most if not all of the mortality was from E. kofoidi. This study illustrated the natural fecundity of chukar coccidia in a floor-pen environment where multiplication rate and reinfection combine to produce clinical disease from a small original exposure. Further, these results cast doubt on the potential use of low doses of live oocysts as a vaccine in the chukar partridge.

Low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (H9N2) is circulating in poultry industry of many Euroasian countries causing serious economical problems. In this study we investigated clinical signs, antibody response, viral shedding and efficacy of oil emulsion vaccines in chukar partridges. Seventy five chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) were divided randomly in three groups of 1-Challenged, 2- Vaccinated and challenged 3-Control (non-vaccinated and non-challenged) groups 25 birds/group. In challenged and vaccinated groups birds were inoculated with 0.4 ml allantoic fluid containing 107 EID50/bird of tA/Chicken/ Iran/772/1998(H9N2) avian influenza virus. Clinical signs, antibody response, viral shedding and vaccine efficacy were evaluated and compared among these groups. Clinical signs such as; coughing and sneezing with depression and decreased in feed and water consumption were observed in group one. Also in vaccinated and challenged group slight decrease of food and water consumption were observed. Both vaccinated and challenged groups showed maximum antibody titer at 9 DPI. At 1 DPI the virus was detected from all tissues in challenged group, however the virus wasn’t detected from the spleen and cecal tonsil of group vaccinated and challenged group. Unvaccinated challenged groups showed longest period of viral shedding in the trachea and kidney. Biography Professor Hassan Nili has completed his Ph.D at Queensland University in Australia and he his study leave research at VLA in UK on highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. He is currently the head of avian diseases research center of Shiraz University. He has been involved in Influenza research for more than 10 years.