The Role of Carrion in the Landscapes of Fear and Disgust: A Review and Prospects

Marcos Moleón,José A Sánchez-Zapata

doi:10.3390/d13010028

Abstract

Animal behavior is greatly shaped by the ‘landscape of fear’, induced by predation risk, and the equivalent ‘landscape of disgust’, induced by parasitism or infection risk. However, the role that carrion may play in these landscapes of peril has been largely overlooked. Here, we aim to emphasize that animal carcasses likely represent ubiquitous hotspots for both predation and infection risk, thus being an outstanding paradigm of how predation and parasitism pressures can concur in space and time. By conducting a literature review, we highlight the manifold inter- and intra-specific interactions linked to carrion via predation and parasitism risks, which may affect not only scavengers, but also non-scavengers. However, we identified major knowledge gaps, as reviewed articles were highly biased towards fear, terrestrial environments, vertebrates, and behavioral responses. Based on the reviewed literature, we provide a conceptual framework on the main fear- and disgust-based interaction pathways associated with carrion resources. This framework may be used to formulate predictions about how the landscape of fear and disgust around carcasses might influence animals’ individual behavior and ecological processes, from population to ecosystem functioning. We encourage ecologists, evolutionary biologists, epidemiologists, forensic scientists, and conservation biologists to explore the promising research avenues associated with the scary and disgusting facets of carrion. Acknowledging the multiple trophic and non-trophic interactions among dead and live animals, including both herbivores and carnivores, will notably improve our understanding of the overlapping pressures that shape the landscape of fear and disgust.

Highlights

Buck et al [1] and Weinstein et al [2] formalized a correspondence between predator and parasite avoidance behaviors
Most articles focused on present-day assemblages, while all studies concerned with prehistorical times were related to the predation and infection risk faced at carcass sites by early hominins (Figure 1C)
This review highlights the manifold inter- and intra-specific interactions linked to carrion via predation and parasitism risks, which may affect carrion consumers, and non-consumers

Summary

Introduction

Buck et al [1] and Weinstein et al [2] formalized a correspondence between predator and parasite avoidance behaviors They argued how infection risk must determine a three-dimensional ‘landscape of disgust’ equivalent to the ‘landscape of fear’ induced by predation risk (defined by [1] as “the relative levels of predation risk experienced by a prey individual, represented as peaks and valleys on the landscape”). In this way, animal behavior is largely shaped by perceived risk (from either predators or parasites), leading to high-risk sites avoidance and preference for low-risk patches [1,2]. Through inducing fear and disgust, predators and parasites lead to a pervasive ‘landscape of peril’ [6] that may indirectly affect individuals and populations, as well as communities and ecosystems via cascading effects [1,2,6]

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Conclusion