The Nigerian, Swedish and Chilean Pension Systems: A Comparative Analysis of Schemes and Reforms

The aim of this article is to define the Japanese, South Korean and Lithuanian latest pension system reforms and measures during economic crisis. Problems of the Japanese, S. Korean and Lithuanian pension systems are similar to the others industrial Asian or European Union countries: ageing, impact of economic crisis and pension system budget deficit. Moreover, the Japanese, S. Korean and Lithuanian population ageing rapidly (low birth rate, longer life expectancy) and it influences the entire society and requires more complex and pressing pension systems reforms. All countries of the world fighting against the ageing and searching for the pension system financial sustainability. After the universal pension system reform in 1985, the task of Japanese government is to ensure for each participant an adequate and regular pension income, to implement the social justice and solidarity. Pension system reforms in S. Korea began intensively only since 1997 and this was associated with a global currency crisis. Since the end of the last century until 2009, S. Korean government has developed a modern social security and social assistance systems. The government is constantly increasing social security coverage and benefits (from 1999 to 2009, social benefits increased almost four times). However, the social security coverage is still insufficient, income disparities increasing and the financial disbalances require to reform the pension system for a long-term perspective. The pension system reform of 2003 and 2011 raised the wide discussion on the state social pension insurance system future development of Lithuania. This reform clearly demonstrates that the government in 2003 opted for a liberal position and in 2011 – it was decided to strengthen state social insurance guarantees. KEY WORDS: pension system, reform, crisis, ageing, Japan, S. Korea, Lithuania.

The relevance of the paper is caused by the fact that the current pension system did not satisfy either citizens, since their pensions were extremely miserable, neither employers due to the high level of contributions to the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation, nor the government, since the low level of pensions caused social and, as a consequence, political tension, nor the subjects of the Russian Federation, since the unfunded pension system obliged the regions to deduct funds from their own funds to cover pension obligations to subsidized regions. The way out of this situation is the creation of a new pension reform, which will increase the size of the pension by increasing the income of the pension system itself. The main goal of the pension reform is to increase the welfare of Russian citizens after they retire. The subject of the study is a new pension reform, the stimulus of which was to become a transition from an unfunded to a defined contribution pension system. The aim of the study is to identify the main economic reasons for creating a new pension reform. Methodology. To study the new pension reform, the main indicators are systematized: the minimum length of service for assigning an insurance pension, the amount of pension points for the period from 2015 to 2024 and subsequent years, and pension calculation formulas. Results. According to the new pension reform, the employee is encouraged to show full salary for employers to pay insurance contributions. The conditions are created to remove real wages from the “shadow”. The unfunded pension system caused social instability, caused a conflict of generations, workers and employers, destabilized the authorities. The new pension reform is designed to provide conditions for mutual assistance of generations and social partnership. The unfunded pension system led to the fact that pension payments were a heavy burden on the economy. The new pension system, at the expense of the funded part of the insurance contribution, creates an investment resource of “long money” (with a demand period of 25-30 years). Thus, the pension system not only serves elderly citizens, but also really works to develop the domestic economy.

1. Introduction and Overview Katja Hujo PART I: POLITICAL ECONOMY ISSUES IN PENSION REFORM 2. Pension Privatization and Economic Development in Central-Eastern European Pension Reform Katharina Muller 3. Pension Schemes and Pension Reforms in the Middle East and North Africa Markus Loewe 4. The Reform of the Civil Service Pension Programme in Korea: Changes and Continuity Huck-ju Kwon PART II: PENSION SYSTEM AND REFORM IN THE BRICS 5. Recent History, Perspectives and Challenges to Pension Policy: The Brazilian Case Marcelo Abi-Ramia Caetano 6. Social Security Reform and Economic Development: The Case of India Mukul G. Asher and Azad Singh Bali 7. Towards Universal Coverage: A Macro Analysis of China's Public Pension Reform Lianquan Fang 8. The Private Affairs of Public Sector Pensions in South Africa: Debt, Development and Corporatization Fred Hendricks PART III: BRINGING THE STATE BACK IN 9. Pension Reform in Bolivia: Two Models of Income Security in Old Age Peter Lloyd-Sherlock and Kepa Artaraz 10. Pension Reform in Chile and Argentina: Towards More Inclusive Protection Katja Hujo and Mariana Rulli 11. Conclusions Katja Hujo

Natia Kakhniashvili E-mail: Natia.kakhniashvili@tsu.ge Doctor of Business Administration Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University Tbilisi, Georgia https://orcid.org/0009-0004-0759-198X Khatuna Barbakadze E-mail: Khatuna.barbakadze@tsu.ge Candidate of Economic Sciences Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University Tbilisi, Georgia https://orcid.org/0009-0001-1670-8463 Nato Kakashvili E-mail: Nato.kakashvili@tsu.ge Candidate of Economic Sciences Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University Tbilisi, Georgia https://orcid.org/0009-0005-1399-1784 Abstract. Pension policy is a critical component of a state's social policy. Current global trends, particularly those associated with population aging, have heightened the need for effective pension system reforms. The stability and efficiency of pension systems are vital elements of a society's social welfare infrastructure, ensuring financial support for retirees and promoting their well-being in old age. However, pension systems face significant challenges due to demographic shifts, economic fluctuations, and evolving societal expectations. Traditional pension systems often struggle to fully meet the needs of retirees, and many existing schemes experience substantial volatility, jeopardizing their long-term sustainability. As a result, the need for pension system reform has become increasingly urgent. To address these challenges, states must implement more comprehensive reforms aimed at effectively modernizing their pension systems. Pension reform refers to the process by which a government or employer makes substantial changes to the structure, policies, and regulations governing pension benefits. Successful reforms typically require thorough analysis, consultation with stakeholders, and legislative action to ensure effective implementation. The pension system of Georgia has undergone several important stages of reform in recent decades. After gaining independence, the country implemented socio-economic transformations, which were accompanied by demographic aging and shifts in labor market dynamics. These changes underscored the need for reforms in the pension system. The pension system faces several significant challenges. Foremost among these is the demographic trend of an aging population coupled with a declining birth rate, which poses a serious threat to the long-term sustainability of the system. Additionally, the expanding informal labor market and high unemployment levels further complicate the situation, creating obstacles that could undermine the stability of pension benefits for future retirees. Addressing these fiscal challenges requires the implementation of innovative policies that ensure adequate retirement income for citizens while maintaining the system's viability. The reform of the pension system requires the joint participation of the government and society. The government should strengthen supervision and management, create an effective management and supervision mechanism of the pension system. Pension system reform is complex. Different countries have different levels of economic development, demographic structure, social security system, etc. Key words: pension system, reform, efficiency, risks, modernization. JEL classification: H 55, J1

1. Introduction: Why Does Asia Need Well-Functioning Pension Systems?, Donghyun Park and Gemma Estrada 2. People's Republic of China: Pension System Overview and Reform Directions, Stuart H. Leckie 3. Indonesia: Pension System Overview and Reform Directions, Yves Guerard 4. Republic of Korea: Pension System Overview and Reform Direction, Seong Sook Kim 5. Malaysia: Pension System Overview and Reform Directions, Mukul G. Asher 6. Philippines: Pension System Overview and Reform Directions, Ernesto Reyes 7. Singapore: Pension System Overview and Reform Directions, Mukul G. Asher and Amarendu Nandy 8. Thailand: Pension System Overview and Reform Directions, Orin D. Brustad 9. Viet Nam: Pension System Overview and Reform Directions, Giang Thanh Long 10. Policy Options for Reforming Developing Asia's Pension Systems, Donghyun Park

Recasting Pensions in Europe: Policy Challenges and Political Strategies to Pass Reforms

Šiame straipsnyje analizuojama prieš penkerius metus pradėta Lietuvos socialinio draudimo senatvės pensijų struktūrinė reforma, kurios metu dalis socialinio draudimo įmokų pervedama į gyventojų pasirinktus privačius pensijų fondus. Šio straipsnio tikslas - apžvelgti reformos pradžioje jai keltus tikslus, įvertinti jų pagrįstumą socialinės apsaugos ekonomikos teorijos požiūriu, išanalizuoti pradinius pensijų reformos rezultatus. Siekiant šio tikslo išanalizuotas pensijų reformų regione pobūdis, socialinio draudimo pensijų dalinio privatizavimo Lietuvoje ypatybės, kelti privatizavimo tikslai ir besiformuojanti privačių pensijų rinką Lietuvoje. Straipsnyje remiamasi pasaulyje gerai žinomų pensijų ekonomikos tyrėjų publikacijomis, pensijų reformą reglamentuojančiais Lietuvos Respublikos įstatymais, Lietuvos valstybės institucijų skelbiama ekonomine ir socialine statistika.Autoriaus atlikta analizė rodo, kad privačių pensijų fondų klientų asmeninėse kaupiamosiose pensijų sąskaitose kaupiamo turto investicijų grąža nepadengia nuostolių, kuriuos jie patirs dėl dalinio pasitraukimo iš socialinio draudimo pensijų sistemos. Straipsnyje taip pat parodyta minėtos pensijų reformos našta, kuri tenka dabartiniams pensininkams. Pagrindinė straipsnio išvada - reformos tikslai buvo per daug ideologizuoti, o pirminiai rezultatai nepalankūs nei dabartiniams, nei būsimiems pensininkams. Lietuvoje 2004 metais įvykdytos pensijų reformos analizė akademinėje literatūroje pateikiama pirmą kartą.

The subject matter of the research is as follows: pension reforms conducted by some states define the transformation of pension systems. The choice of countries is stipulated by the fact that each of them has different types of pension systems and preconditions for reforms. The purpose is to develop an approach that allows comparing and evaluating changes in disparate systems. The hypothesis is that the ongoing pension reforms, regardless of initial conditions and their type lead to a similar trajectory of pension systems development in all countries. The methodology rests on the comparative analysis that was carried out on the basis of a single algorithm that allows to determine significant modifiable parameters and the overall direction of reform. The novelty is that the authors research the ongoing pension reform from the viewpoint of pension rights formation and distribution of risks. The results are a single trajectory of reforms implementation for the studied countries, which confirms the authors’ hypothesis. The specific features of the Russian pension system do not affect the reform trajectory, which is similar to all countries. The conclusions are the following: the reducing pressure on pension system requires increasing revenues and limiting the number of potential participants. This is achieved by expanding sources of financing, increasing the dependence of pension on an employee’s contributions, transferring the risks of old age into the individual level, and employment motivation during the retirement period. The principle of the intergenerational solidarity loses its value. The obtained results can be used for the pension reform modification in the Russian Federation, the development of voluntary pension insurance based on the experience of other countries and risks faced by the modern Russian pension system.

Purpose: The article discusses financial aspects of the functioning of pension systems in selected countries of the European Union. Changing demographic conditions (aging populations) pose a serious challenge to the financial stability of pension systems in Europe. This article discusses the differences between the pension systems of two selected European countries - Poland and Germany - in terms of pension expenditure, the efficiency of these systems and changes in financing between 2021 and 2024. The aim of this article is to analyze the issue of financing in two representative countries: Poland and Germany, to identify differences in the pension systems in these countries, and to highlight the main challenges they face. The hypothesis is that the pension system in the European countries studied is not a sustainable pension system, assuming that the amount of pension contributions collected is sufficient to pay current pension benefits. Design/methodology/approach: The objective of the article was achieved by verifying secondary sources and conducting a comparative analysis in formal and financial terms. The article draws on literature on social security and social insurance, both in the field of economics and law. The legal sources, materials, and statistical sources were used to present the issues. In addition, materials available on the Internet, including those published by Eurostat, MISSOC, and the OECD, were used in the study. Findings: The data presented in the article concerning two representative countries of the European Union and the financial efficiency indicators of the Polish and German pension systems presented in the article confirm the hypothesis put forward in the article. Contemporary pension systems in highly developed countries are struggling with many problems, mainly resulting from demographic processes. Aging societies and declining birth rates are contributing to changes in the population structure. As a result, there is an increasing need to reform pension systems to adapt them to the current demographic situation. Every pension system reform is a long-term and multifaceted process, and there is no single universal solution that would fully resolve all problems. It is important to take into account the unique demographic, social, and economic conditions of a given country and to rely on broad social consensus. Despite the differences in institutional solutions in individual countries, both the reforms that have been implemented and those merely proposed by the European Union show a common direction of change. This consists of striving to ensure the financial stability of pension systems. More profound changes in the pension systems of European Union member states are inevitable - the pension systems need to be strengthened through broader fiscal reforms, social activation, and increased trust in the system. Research limitations/implications: The topic discussed in the article is very important in the contemporary context due to the financial deficit of social insurance. During the research, certain limitations were observed in access to information, both domestic and international, which could facilitate a more in-depth analysis of the presented issue. Practical implications: The practical consequence of balancing the pension system in Poland - as well as in other EU countries - would be the elimination of the enormous subsidies from the state budget to institutions paying out benefits. Social implications: A country that would not have to subsidize the institutions paying pension benefits could allocate those funds to other important social goals, such as education, public infrastructure, the healthcare system, and so on. Originality/value: By analyzing financing issues in two representative countries, Poland and Germany, identifying differences in their pension systems, and highlighting the main challenges they face, it is possible to better understand the different approaches to pension provision in Europe and their economic effects. Keywords: pension systems, old-age system, financial efficiency of the system, European Union. Category of the paper: Research paper.

The aim of this article is to define the legislationAzerbaijan state social security pension system and latest reforms, influenced by the recent economic crisis and demographic – social challenges, and to provide with the conclusionsin the state social guarantees context. In this paper author analyses challenges and presents conclusions and recommendations for further pension system reforms in Azerbaijan.

The purpose of this article is to analyze the experience of pension insurance systems in Europe, Asia, North and South America, Australia. The defining feature is that the existing pension insurance system in Ukraine does not perform its main task properly, since the rate of pension, for the most part, does not make it possible to maintain a decent standard of living for current pensioners. After analyzing the implementation of the pension reform in Ukraine, it should be emphasized that during the twelve-year period after the pension reform in the country there remain a number of unresolved issues regarding the pension provision of citizens, namely: aging of the population, which is one of the main factors that prompt the government to a new stage of reforming the pension system; the presence of arrears on contributions to compulsory state pension insurance; lack of proper differentiation of pension payments; shadow wages; lack of sound financial instruments for investing pension assets; unsatisfactory level of legal and financial awareness of the population in matters of pension provision; lack of interest of employers in financing non-state pension programs for employees, lack of confidence in the pension system of non-state pension funds. Methods. In most countries of the world, the problems of the pension system, same to what we have in our country, arose. But due to pension reform, they achieved successful results. Each country chose its own way of building a pension system based on its own demographic and socioeconomic features. However, despite this, the main task of any pension system is to secure from poverty and provide a pension that could guarantee a decent standard of living for a pensioner. Results. Ukraine is trying to build the pension insurance system, drawing on the best practice of the countries studied. Practical implications. It is found that the most effective and successful model of the pension system is considered to be Chilean, since the country has been using cumulative and voluntary pension systems for a long time, which are priority and allow to resolve the pension of their citizens financially, prudent and efficient investing of pension funds with lower rates of public investment income. The same model was taken as the basis in Peru, Argentina, Colombia and Kazakhstan. Value/originality. Analyzing the pension reforms implemented in Eastern Europe, it should be noted that part of the changes was due to the need to protect pensioners from poverty in the context of a sharp decrease in the rate of pensions because of the reduction of total pension contributions and the inability of the state to finance previous pension obligations. The real way to reduce the financial burden on employers and the state in the context of a solidarity pension system was to develop levels II and III of the pension system. It is noteworthy to study the foreign experience of the Eastern European country, such as Poland, which was one of the first to introduce a compulsory funded pension system.

З'ясовано, що зростання витрат на фінансування пенсійних систем як Польщі, так і України відбувається через демографічну кризу, соціальні зміни та економічну кризу як на глобальному, так і національному рівнях, змушуючи до реформи цих систем. Сьогодні Україна активізує процес запровадження недержавного пенсійного забезпечення. Йдеться про систему накопичувального пенсійного забезпечення і, зокрема, про недержавну систему пенсійного забезпечення. Саме недержавне пенсійне забезпечення породжує в українському суспільстві низку питань, на які змогла відповісти своєму суспільству Польща після того, як запровадила нову пенсійну реформу. Запровадження тристовпеневої польської пенсійної системи (перший стовп – фонди установ соціального страхування, другий стовп – відкриті пенсійні фонди, третій стовп – пенсійні програми працівників, індивідуальні пенсійні рахунки) пояснило польському суспільству який вік виходу на пенсію згідно з новою пенсійною реформою, наявний мінімальний соціальний стаж у разі виходу на пенсію, чи вигідно приховувати або знижувати доходи під час декларування їх у новій польській пенсійній системі і чи будуть оподатковуватись майбутні пенсійні виплати з податку на прибуток. Отже, бачимо, що Польська тристовпенева пенсійна система є дещо подібна до трирівневої пенсійної системи, яку задекларовано в Законі України "Про загальнообов'язкове державне пенсійне страхування". Проте запровадження недержавного пенсійного забезпечення в Україні (другий та третій рівні) перебуває на початковій стадії. Для активізації системи накопичувального пенсійного забезпечення необхідний розвиток страхового ринку України, який ще мало розвинений, а тому нам треба використовувати досвід як країн Європейського Союзу, зокрема Польщі, так і інших країн світу, що досягли високих результатів у цьому питанні.

Pension reform is always the most challenging type of government reform. In this chapter, the authors analyse Taiwan's pension reform in four sections. Firstly, we provide a four-stage overview of civil service pension reform in Taiwan. Secondly, we utilise Peter Hall's ‘3-i’ interpretive framework in discussing the fourth stage of reform. Thirdly, we present the results of two surveys of sampled civil servants to demonstrate the reform's impact on the civil service system. Lastly, we want to make three critical comments on Taiwan's civil service pension system's future. (1) Tsai faces an approaching labour insurance pension bankruptcy, the low payment rate of the national pension system, and the missing financial sources for the newly established farmers’ pension system caused by the low birth rate in the past twenty-plus years. (2) Because the pension reform took away the generous pension in civil service, civil service jobs will be less attractive to younger people. (3) The pension reform deepened the social cleavage between retired KMT civil servants and the ruling DPP party, both in the sense of divided national identity and class conflict within Taiwan.

This article aims to study the Kosovo economic transition process and its impact on the Pension system reform. The study will focus on; model of new economic building system (market liberalization, economic recovery, the concept of entrepreneurship development, system integration of economic trends in the global economy, privatization and transformation of property, social welfare, social justice), etc. During this study different theories on the transition process in the economy will be used, as well as theories on reforming the pension system in the world, which affirm the sustainability of the construction of the new economic and pension system. Methods used will serve to draw relevant conclusions as follow; heuristic, descriptive, historical, comparative, statistical. The hypothesis of this study is, "Impact of the economic reform system in Kosovo and its results in the construction of the new sustainable pension system model." Through this study conceptual changes to the economic system will be put forward, dealing with socialist and liberal philosophy, as different concepts of economic development, the role of the state or the market as a regulator of the economic system. In particular, attention is paid to the new pension system in Kosovo; the causes for reform of the pension system, reforming the pension system, the basic goals of the reform of the pension system, the types of pensions systems in the world, the conceptual basis of the construction of the pension system in Kosovo, the principles of the reform of the pension system, the regulatory framework of the new pension system in Kosovo, advantages and challenges of multi pillar pension system model, the model used for Kosovo's pension system, pension schemes in Kosovo, the efficiency of the new pension system in Kosovo, comparing the new pension system in Kosovo with pension systems of other countries in the region.

The Effects of Means-Tested, Noncontributory Pensions on Poverty and Well-Being: Evidence from the Chilean Pension Reforms