The long‐term consequences of peer victimization on physical and psychological health: A longitudinal study

<p id="p00015">Aggressive behavior plays an important role in the social, emotional and psychological adjustment of children and adolescents. Children and adolescents with aggressive behavior are prone to violate social moral norms, and even commit crimes in serious cases. It is noted that peer victimization is an important predictor of aggressive behavior. Peer victimization refers to that individuals have experienced attacks by peers, such as physical and verbal victimization, attacks on property and social manipulation. Children and adolescents who have been victimized by peers will characterize the attacker as hostility, which will be generalized to the whole peer group, thus showing more aggressive behavior in future interpersonal communication. Several previous studies have examined the relationship between peer victimization and aggressive behavior in children and adolescents. However, due to differences in research design and inconsistent results, there is still some uncertainty about the relationship between peer victimization and aggressive behavior in children and adolescents, and the moderating effect on this relationship is not fully clear. Therefore, the present study employed a three-level meta-analysis to quantitatively synthesize the results of original literatures to obtain reliable estimates of effect sizes and examined a range of moderators (sample, publication, study design, outcome, and assessment characteristics). Through the retrieval of articles published before October 2020, the current meta-analysis identified 40 studies, with 25,605 participants (range of mean age: 6 ~ 19 years) and 333 independent effect sizes. The funnel plot and Egger's test results suggested an absence of publication bias in current meta-analysis. Analysis revealed a significant positive association between peer victimization and aggressive behavior in children and adolescents (<italic>r</italic> = 0.295, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001), implying that children and adolescents showed a higher level of aggressive behavior when they experienced higher level of peer victimization. In addition, the present study found a significant moderating effect of peer victimization variable. Compared with physical victimization (<italic>r</italic> = 0.219, <italic>p</italic> = 0.005), the association between relational victimization (<italic>r</italic> = 0.298, <italic>p</italic> = 0.005) and aggressive behavior in children and adolescents was stronger. Moreover, the overall association was influenced by region. Aggressive behavior in children and adolescents was more strongly associated with peer victimization in Asia (<italic>r</italic> = 0.351, <italic>p</italic> = 0.006) than in South America (<italic>r</italic> = 0.149, <italic>p</italic> = 0.006). Study design was also a significant moderator. The association between peer victimization and aggressive behavior in children and adolescents was smaller in longitudinal (<italic>r</italic> = 0.234, <italic>p</italic> = 0.014) than in cross-sectional studies (<italic>r</italic> = 0.339, <italic>p</italic> = 0.014). Finally, the moderator analyses also showed that the informant of peer victimization was a significant moderator. The strength of the association between peer victimization and aggressive behavior in children and adolescents was significantly stronger when peer victimization was reported by teachers (<italic>r</italic> = 0.476, <italic>p</italic> = 0.023) than by peers (<italic>r</italic> = 0.290, <italic>p</italic> = 0.023). In addition, the present study found that the overall association between peer victimization and aggressive behavior in children and adolescents did not differ in strength across gender, age, publication, variable and informant of aggressive behavior. Moreover, to eliminate the multicollinearity between moderators, the current study built a multivariate model by including all significant moderators that had been identified in the bivariate models. The result indicated that at least one of the regression coefficients of moderators significantly deviates from zero (<italic>F</italic> (12, 316) = 3.973, <italic>p </italic>&lt; 0.001). In sum, the results of the current meta-analysis contribute to a better understanding of the association between peer victimization and aggressive behavior in children and adolescents. These results also provide a reference for future empirical studies on explaining aggressive behavior in children and adolescents.

Peer victimization is consistently linked to adolescents' alcohol use. However, the relative influence of relational and physical peer victimization on alcohol use, and timing of drinking initiation, is not well understood. In this study, we evaluate the impact of both relational and physical peer victimization on adolescent girls' alcohol use initiation, and the extent to which depression severity moderates these associations. Participants were 2,125 girls in the Pittsburgh Girls Study, a longitudinal community-based study. Participants reported experiences of relational and physical peer victimization, depression severity, and alcohol use each year from ages 10 to 17. Cox proportional hazards (PH) regression analyses predicting the timing of first drink were conducted in 2 stages, testing for main effects of peer victimization in Model 1 and moderation by depression severity in Model 2. Analyses were split at age 14 to adjust for PH violations. Model 1 results supported a main effect for relational (Hazards ratio [HR]=1.83, CI: 1.46 to 2.28≤age 13; HR=1.23, CI: 1.05 to 1.45≥age 14) but not physical victimization on timing of alcohol use onset (HR=1.10, CI: 0.88 to 1.39). Model 2 results show that depression severity moderates the association between relational victimization and alcohol use initiation: the association between relational victimization and early alcohol use onset was stronger for lower depression severity (-1 SD HR=2.38, CI: 1.68 to 3.39≤age 13; -1 SD HR=1.48, CI: 1.10 to 1.52≥age 14). Results demonstrate that relational (and not physical) victimization predicts earlier drinking among adolescent girls. Relational peer victimization conferred greater risk for alcohol use initiation when depression severity was lower, whereas girls with high depression severity engaged in early alcohol use regardless of peer victimization. Results suggest that interventions focused on relational peer victimization may have spillover effects for delaying girls' alcohol use initiation, particularly in early adolescence, when this association is most robust.

A 2-wave longitudinal study of young adolescents was used to test whether peer victimization predicts depressive symptoms, depressive symptoms predict peer victimization, or the 2 constructs show reciprocal relations. Participants were 598 youths in Grades 3 through 6, ages 8 to 14 (M = 10.9, SD = 1.2) at Wave 1. The sample was 50.7% female and 90.3% Caucasian. Participants completed self-reports of depressive symptoms, and self-reports and peer nomination measures of physical and relational peer victimization at 2 time points separated by 1 year. The results were as follows: (a) depressive symptoms predicted change in both physical and relational victimization, but neither type of peer victimization predicted change in depressive symptoms; (b) depressive symptoms were more predictive of physical victimization for boys than for girls; and (c) boys experienced more physical victimization, and girls experienced more relational victimization. Expression of some depressive symptoms may represent signs of vulnerability. For boys, they may also represent a violation of gender stereotypes. Both factors could be responsible for these effects. Implications for intervention include the possibility that treatment of depression in young adolescents may reduce the likelihood of peer victimization.

Physical activity is encouraged among adolescents to teach healthy living while also protecting youth by reducing the risk of many physical and mental health issues. Involvement in organized athletics, a common avenue for participation in physical activity among adolescents but may also inadvertently contribute to peer victimization. The goal of this paper was to assess if involvement in organized athletics moderates the relationship between physical activity and peer victimization. 21420 adolescent Canadian students completed the 2010 Health Behaviour Survey for School-aged Children, which included measures assessing physical activity, involvement in organized athletics, and involvement in bullying. Moderated regressions indicated that poor health, low physical activity, absence of involvement in organized athletics, lower grade, and gender were associated with increased peer victimization. These findings suggest that although involvement in organized athletics offers adolescents an opportunity to be physically active, it may come at cost due to an increased risk for peer victimization. This research has implications for both practice and policy.

This study examined associations between two forms of peer victimization, physical and relational, and externalizing behaviors including drug use, aggression, and delinquent behaviors among a sample of 276 predominantly African American eighth graders attending middle school in an urban public school system. Regression analyses indicated that physical victimization was significantly related to cigarette and alcohol use but not to advanced alcohol and marijuana use; relational victimization contributed uniquely to all categories of drug use after controlling for physical victimization. Physical victimization was also significantly related to physical and relational aggression and delinquent behaviors, and relational victimization made a unique contribution in the concurrent prediction of these behaviors. Physical victimization was more strongly related to both categories of alcohol use, aggression, and to delinquent behaviors among boys than among girls. In contrast, relational victimization was more strongly related to physical aggression and marijuana use among girls than among boys, but more strongly related to relational aggression among boys than among girls. These findings provide information about the generalizability of prior research and have important implications for intervention efforts.

Research has demonstrated the predictive effect of peer victimization on adolescent suicidal ideation. However, few studies have explored the bidirectional relations between peer victimization and suicidal ideation and how insomnia symptoms mediate these bidirectional relations. The present study examined reciprocal relations between peer victimization (i.e., physical and relational victimization) and suicidal ideation and the potential mediating role of insomnia symptoms and sex differences by disentangling between- and within-person effects. A total of 4731 students (44.9% girls; Mage = 10.91 years, SD = 0.52) participated in a four-wave longitudinal study with 6-month intervals. Results from random intercept cross-lagged panel modeling indicated significant positive associations between peer victimization, insomnia symptoms, and suicidal ideation at the between-person level. At the within-person level, significant sex differences were identified in the bidirectional associations between physical or relational victimization, insomnia symptoms, and suicidal ideation. Specifically, boys showed significant bidirectional associations between physical victimization and suicidal ideation. In contrast, for girls, suicidal ideation significantly predicted subsequent physical victimization, but the reverse pathway was not significant. Furthermore, no significant cross-lagged associations were found between relational victimization and suicidal ideation among boys. However, for girls, relational victimization and suicidal ideation demonstrated significant cross-lagged effects. Significant bidirectional associations between physical victimization and insomnia symptoms were observed in both boys and girls. For girls, insomnia symptoms significantly mediated the bidirectional relations between physical victimization and suicidal ideation, but the bidirectional relations between relational victimization and insomnia symptoms were not supported. For boys, while both physical and relational victimization significantly predicted insomnia symptoms, insomnia symptoms did not predict suicidal ideation. In the reverse pathway, insomnia symptoms mediated the pathway from suicidal ideation to physical victimization among boys. The findings underscore the importance of considering both sex differences and insomnia symptoms in understanding the pathways linking peer victimization to suicidal ideation, offering valuable insights for targeted interventions.

We examined associations between peer victimization in early adolescence and self-esteem and internalizing problems in late adolescence and whether these, in turn, explained variation in later parenting. We used longitudinal data from the TRacking Adolescents’ Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS) and its next-generation spin-off study (TRAILS NEXT) to model links between peer victimization reported by individuals themselves, their parents, and their peers at age 11, self-esteem and internalizing problems at age 19, and parental stress and self-efficacy ~10 years later. The used subsample consisted of n = 199 parents (79% female, mean age = 30.48 when offspring were 30 months old) with n = 273 children. Contrary to expectations, peer victimization was not indirectly associated with later parental stress or self-efficacy via self-esteem or internalizing problems at age 19 after adjusting for baseline mental health. Internalizing problems at age 19 consistently predicted higher parental stress in all models. Our findings suggest that early peer victimization experiences have limited long-term effects on parenting, but this might be due to the current assessment of victimization experiences. To better examine the impact of parents’ developmental histories, a more fine-grained measure of peer victimization should be used, taking into account factors such as severity and chronicity.

Peer victimization in adolescence: The nature, progression, and consequences of being bullied within a developmental context

Peer victimization is a prevalent problem, which is often related to high body mass index (BMI). However, prior studies largely overlooked the heterogeneity in this association varying as a function of the victimization type/form (i.e., physical, verbal, and relational). Notably, it also remains unclear how BMI and different types of peer victimization may be related to each other at the within-person level from middle childhood to early adolescence, while controlling for the between-person effects. The current study aims to narrow such gaps. Data were derived from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Studies, Kindergarten Class of 2010 to 2011 (ECLS: 2011). A total of 13,977 children from 2nd to 5th grade (Mage at 2nd grade = 8.12 years, SD = .37; 49.0% females) were included. This study conducted autoregressive latent trajectory with structured residuals models (with the sampling weight in ECLS appropriately considered) to examine the between- and within-person associations between BMI and relational, verbal, and physical peer victimization. Associations between BMI and peer victimization over time varied systematically as a function of the victimization type. Within-person increases in relational victimization at 4th grade were associated with increases in BMI in the subsequent year (i.e., child 4th and 5th grades). Children who experienced higher than their usual level of physical victimization in the 3rd grade had a lower-than-usual level of BMI in the 4th grade, and lower-than-usual BMI in the 4th grade was related negatively to higher-than-usual physical victimization in the subsequent year. Such findings reveal understudied nuance and specificity in the link between BMI and peer victimization, providing more informative insights for the design of more targeted intervention programs.

The high levels of comorbidity between oppositional/conduct problems and hyperactivity/attention problems underscore the need for assessing how vulnerability for peer victimization is shaped by overlap among these behavior problems. Children (mean age 8.39, SD = 0.93) participating in a longitudinal study of the development of conduct problems (N = 744; 348 girls) in Quebec, Canada, were evaluated by their teachers regarding experiences of peer verbal and physical victimization every year for 6years. Parent and teacher ratings of clinically significant oppositional/conduct problems, and hyperactivity/attention problems, as well as cormorbid opposition defiant/conduct problems and hyperactivity/attention problems were regressed onto trajectories of verbal and physical victimization. While behavior problems (both alone and together) were associated with higher levels of verbal and physical victimization, some variation was observed across rater and type of victimization. Ultimately, these findings suggest the importance of adapting programming for reducing victimization to children with oppositional and conduct problems.

A three-wave longitudinal study among ethnically diverse preadolescents (N = 597 at Time 1, ages 9-11) was conducted to examine adaptive, maladaptive, mediational, and bidirectional processes of relational and physical aggression, victimization, and peer liking indexed by peer acceptance and friendships. A series of nested structural equation models tested the hypothesized links among these peer-domain factors. It was hypothesized that (1) relational aggression trails both adaptive and maladaptive processes, linking to more peer victimization and more peer liking, whereas physical aggression is maladaptive, resulting in more peer victimization and less peer liking; (2) physical and relational victimization is maladaptive, relating to more aggression and less peer liking; (3) peer liking may be the social context that promotes relational aggression (not physical aggression), whereas peer liking may protect against peer victimization, regardless of its type; and (4) peer liking mediates the link between forms of aggression and forms of peer victimization. Results showed that higher levels of peer liking predicted relative increases in relational aggression (not physical aggression), which in turn led to more peer liking. On the other hand, more peer liking was predictive of relative decreases in relational aggression and relational victimization in transition to the next grade (i.e., fifth grade). In addition, relational victimization predicted relative increases in relational aggression and relative decreases in peer liking. Similarly, physical aggression was consistently and concurrently associated more physical victimization and was marginally predictive of relative increases in physical victimization in transition to the next grade. More peer liking predicted relative decreases in physical victimization, which resulted in lower levels of peer liking. The directionality and magnitude of these paths did not differ between boys and girls.

BackgroundNon-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is common among adolescents with depressive disorders, yet the role of peer victimization and gender differences remains understudied. This study examines how different types of peer victimization (physical, verbal, social, property) relate to NSSI, focusing on gender as a moderator.MethodsA cross-sectional study of 2,343 adolescents with depressive disorders (517 males, 1,826 females) was conducted across 14 medical institutions in China. Peer victimization and NSSI were measured using the PVQ and C-FASM, respectively. Gender-stratified multiple linear regressions examined predictors of NSSI and its functions.ResultsNSSI was more prevalent in females (80.18%) than males (61.51%) (χ2 = 77.094, p < 0.001), with higher scores for emotion regulation (β = 12.33 vs. 9.85, p < 0.001). Regression analyses revealed gender-specific predictors: in males, social victimization (β = 1.213, p = 0.036) and verbal victimization (β = 1.764, p = 0.031) significantly predicted NSSI related to emotion regulation; in females, physical victimization (β = 0.768, p = 0.005) and social victimization (β = 0.873, p < 0.001) were the primary predictors. For attention-seeking functions, physical, social, and verbal victimization were significant predictors in both genders, with higher coefficients observed in males. It is noteworthy that property victimization was significantly associated with social avoidance-driven NSSI only in females (β = 0.564, p = 0.001), highlighting the gender-specific impact of victimization on NSSI functions.ConclusionPeer victimization is a significant predictor of NSSI, with clear gender-specific patterns. Gender-sensitive assessments and interventions tailored to victimization type are essential for early prevention.

The purposes of the present study were to: (1) describe rates of peer victimization in young adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, (2) evaluate the association between types of peer victimization (i.e., physical, relational, and reputational) and internalizing problems (i.e., anxiety, depression, and self-esteem), and (3) examine whether associations between victimization and internalizing problems differ for males or females. Participants were 131 middle-school students (ages 11-15years, 73% male, 76% White) diagnosed with ADHD who completed ratings of victimization, anxiety, depression, and self-esteem. Over half of the participants (57%) reported experiencing at least one victimization behavior at a rate of once per week or more, with higher rates of relational victimization (51%) than reputational victimization (17%) or physical victimization (14%). Males reported experiencing more physical victimization than females, but males and females did not differ in rates of relational or reputational victimization. Whereas relational and physical victimization were both uniquely associated with greater anxiety for both males and females, relational victimization was associated with greater depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem for males but not females. These findings indicate that young adolescents with ADHD frequently experience peer victimization and that the association between victimization and internalizing problems among young adolescents with ADHD differs as a result of victimization type, internalizing domain, and sex.

In this preliminary study, we examined peer victimization in adolescents with Down syndrome (DS) and how it relates to language and communication skills. We modified the Childrens' Social Experience Questionnaire (Crick and Grotpeter in Dev Psychopathol 8:367-380, 1996) to better suit adolescents with DS by simplifying vocabulary and syntax, using two step interview response format. Internal reliability was adequate, and all peer victimization measures were significantly elevated compared to a typically developing sample. Further, peer victimization (especially relational victimization) correlated with speech intelligibility, pragmatic judgment, conversational behavior, and receptive vocabulary. These preliminary data suggest that having DS may put adolescents at risk for peer victimization, but having relatively good language/communication skills may be a protective factor. Further research is warranted on this topic.

Extremely low birth weight (ELBW; <1000 g) children may be at risk for experiencing peer victimization. We examined retrospectively reported peer victimization in ELBW and control children in the oldest known, prospectively followed, population-based birth cohort of ELBW survivors. We compared levels of verbal and physical peer victimization in ELBW and control children. We also predicted peer victimization in the ELBW sample from child characteristics. ELBW children, especially girls, were at an increased risk for verbal, but not physical victimization. In addition, ELBW children with a higher IQ reported higher levels of verbal victimization, although ELBW females who had a lower body mass index in childhood reported higher levels of physical victimization. Findings highlight the need for parents and clinicians to be aware that ELBW girls, especially those with a lower body mass index in childhood, may be at increased risk of peer victimization, as are ELBW children with a higher IQ.