Abstract
A full-wave method is used to examine the transmission and internal reflection of waves incident on the nighttime ionosphere from above at moderate and low latitudes. The results are used to examine how the absorption of whistler waves incident vertically varies with height. Calculations for a range of angles at which the whistler waves emerge into free space below the ionosphere indicate how ionospheric absorption influences the latitude variation of whistler occurrence and affects the whistler energy spectra observed at different latitudes.
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