The interplay of maternal sensitivity and infant temperament and attention in predicting toddlers’ executive function: A two-year longitudinal study

Abstract

<p id="p00005">Executive Function (EF), proven to be linked to the prefrontal cortex, refers to a set of higher-order cognitive and self-regulatory processes. These processes include (a) inhibition, the ability to intentionally suppress prepotent impulses or habits; (b) working memory, the ability to hold multiple things in the mind at once while mentally manipulating one or more of them; and (c) cognitive flexibility or shifting, the capability to switch between tasks. However, little attention has been given to predictors of EF across the first two years of life. A principal limitation of this is a methodological challenge, due to toddlers’ limited sustained attention, poor language competence, and labile emotional state. Accordingly, in this study, we aimed to examine developmental intrinsic factors (infant attention and temperament) and the caregiving environment (maternal sensitivity) in infancy as possible predictors of EF in toddlerhood. By estimating specific contributions and interaction effects, we aimed to expand the knowledge on early mechanisms behind the development of EF in toddlerhood from an intrinsic and environmental perspective. <break/>At six months (T1, <italic>n </italic>= 236), infants and mothers visited Center for Child Development for the assessment of maternal sensitivity and infant attention. Mothers completed questionnaires on infant temperament. Maternal sensitivity was evaluated by observing the free, interactive process between mother and children at six months. Infant temperament was assessed by mothers reporting data using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised-Short Form (IBQR-SF), and infant attention was assessed using a Screen Look Duration task at six months. At 24 months (T2, <italic>n</italic> = 191), the children returned to the laboratory with an accompanying parent for an assessment battery of EF tasks, including Multilocation Search, Shape Stroop, Reverse Categorization, and Delay of Gratification tasks. <break/>The results indicated that: (1) Peak look duration could predict working memory task and delay of gratification task performance at 24 months. This provides empirical support for the hierarchical framework of EF development, advocating early attention as a foundation for the development of EF. (2) High levels of maternal sensitivity significantly predicted better EF performance among children with low levels of surgency in infancy. However, there was no link between maternal sensitivity and EF among children with medium to high levels of surgency in infancy. (3) Interaction effects suggested that maternal sensitivity positively predicted EF performance among children with high levels of peak look duration in infancy. However, maternal sensitivity negatively predicted EF performance among children with low levels of peak look duration in infancy. <break/>Overall, our findings indicate the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic factors in the development of EF in toddlers and provide key insights about parenting. For infants with a lower level of surgency or longer peak look duration, maternal sensitivity positively predicted EF performance in toddlerhood. However, for infants with shorter peak look duration, excessive maternal sensitivity may not be desirable.